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CllAKLi;.MA^.;NL. 



THE 



BoYS' Book of Famous Rulers. 



BY 



LYDIA HOYT FARMER, 

AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF SCIENCE," "THE PRINCE OF THE FLAMINCi 
STAR," " WHAT SHE MADE OF HER LIFE," E%C. 




^ 



NEW YORK: 

THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO., 

No. 13 AsTOR Place. 







CopyHgM, 

By. Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 

18S6. 



J. S. CusniNG & Co., PllINTERS, BOSTON. 






DEDICATED 

TO 

MY CHILDREN 



PEEFACE. 



The aim of this book is to give in as concise manner 
as possible, consistent with graphic narration and bio- 
graphical completeness, the most important and inter- 
esting events in the lives of these famous rulers ; together 
with a brief history of the various epochs in which they 
lived, and a description of the manners and customs of 
the people comprising the several nations governed by 
these illustrious monarchs. 

The Author. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Agamemnon 1 

Cyrus the Great 30 

Alexander the Great 71 

juliis c^sar 110 

Charlemagne 142 

Alfred the Great 169 

Richard Cceur de Lion 195 

Robert Bruce 233 

Ferdinand V. or Spain 266 

Philip II. of Spain 291 

GusTAVus Adolphus 312 

Louis XIV 334 

Peter the Great . . . • • 367 

Frederick the Great 398 

Napoleon 1 433 



Ii«^ 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Charlemagne Frontispiece 

Jupiter sending the Evil Dream to Agamemnon Page 9 

Hector chiding Paris 11 

Diomed casting his Spear against Mars 17 

Ajax defending the Greek Ships against the Trojans ..... 18 

Hector's Body dragged at the Car of Achilles 26 

The Funeral of Hector 27 

Persian Guardsman carrying Bow and Quiver 37 

Persian Soldier with Battle-Axe 37 

Persian Foot Soldiers 37 

Persian King seated on his Throne. 38 

Persian Subjects bringing Tribute 58 

Chart of the Country around Babylon 60 

Supposed Plan of Ancient Babylon 62 

Babylonian King 64 

Persian Chariot 67 

Tomb of Cyrus 67 

Ruins of Babylon 70 

Temple of Diana at Ephesus 72 

^ Alexander the Great 74 

^ Demosthenes 80 

Darius 92 

•"^ Julius C^sar — from the Antique Bust 110 

Julius Csesar 116 

Caesar in Gaul 122 

The Landing of Julius Caesar in Britain 124 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



^ Charlemagne — from Early Engraving 

The Huns at Chalons 

" Thrust him away or thou diest in his stead " 

^ Charlemagne 

Death of Roland 

Alfred the Great 

The Northmen invading France 

Alfred the Great 

Alfred and the Cakes 

^ Richard Coeur de Lion 

'^Richard Coeur de Lion 

Richard tearing down the Austrian Banner 

" Most Holy Land, Farewell ! " 

King John 

'^ Warren, Earl of Surrey, Governor of Scotland under Ed- 
ward I 

^ Robert Bruce 

" Bruce was not slow in taking the warning " 

" See ! I have spoiled my good battle-axe " 

Ferdinand of Aragon 

I Isabella of Castile 

Segovia : The Alcazar and Cathedral 

The Cathedral and Port of Malaga 

Court of Lions, Alhambra ... 

■^^ Columbus 

Prison of the Inquisition at Barcelona . 

Tomb of Ferdmand and Isatella in the Cathedral of 
Granada ... .... 



Philip II, 



Queen Mary plighting her Troth to Philip 

Destroying Statues, etc., in the Cathedral at Antwerp. . 
^ Philip II 



142 
144 
147 
152 
160 
170 
174 
182 
186 
196 
208 
221 
228 
230 

235 

238 
243 
260 
266 
268 
271 
274 
280 
282 
286 

289 
291 
292 
304 
308 



I 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi 

Guctavus Adolplnijj 312 

^Gustavus Adolphus — from a picture by Van Dyck 318 

Death of Gustavus and his Page 332 

^ Louis XIV 334 

•^ Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin 340 

Louis XIV. taking leave of Fouquet 344 

Death of Turenne 350 

Jean Baptiste Colbert 352 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 354 

Peter the Great. . , 368 

The Kremlin of Moscow 373 

Peter saved from Slaughter by his Mother 374 

Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul in the Fortress 386 

Peter the Great in the Dutch Ship-yard 389 

•^ Peter the Great 392 

'^ Frederick II., King of Prussia, aet. 58 398 

''Frederick the Great 418 

Arrest of Voltaire by order of Frederick 427 

^^ Equestrian Statue of Frederick the Great, set. 73 430 

^ Napoleon 434 

Napoleon in the Prison of Nice, 1794 442 

^ Napoleon at Fontainebleau 462 

" Napoleon on Board the Bellerophon 466 

I The Rock at St. Helena 474 



BOYS' BOOK OF FAMOUS RULEES. 



^»o>©<c 



AGAMEMNON. 

1184 B.C. 

" The rule 
Of many is not well. One must be chief 
In 'svar, and one the king." — Iliad. 

FOR nine 3'ears the Greeks had besieged the cit}" of 
Troy. This famous Trojan War, which is said to 
have occurred about 1184 b.c, has been embellished by 
romance and poetry ; and although the real events have 
been much distorted by fabulous tales, it holds an impor- 
tant place in ancient Grecian histoiy. 

The marvellous Greek poet Homer has immortalized 
the wonderful story of this congest, in which, according 
to the old Grecian belief, gods and heroes fought for 
mastery ; and it seems more fitting to the subject that 
we should view these events through the eyes of those 
ancient Greeks, whose weird yet fascinating fables 
peopled the mountains and seas with gods and goddesses ; 
over whom proud Zeus or Jupiter ruled on the dread 
Mount of Olympus, from whence he hurled his awful 
thunderbolts, and shook the earth and heavens in his 
wrathful moods, when gods or mortals had dared to defy 
his imperial will. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, was 
the commander of all the Grecian hosts which for these 



2 AGAMEMNON. 

nine years had surrounded the walls of Tro}^ The cause 
of the quarrel may be thus briefly stated : — 

Priam was the richest and most powerful of all the 
kings of Troy. His wife, Queen Hecuba, had dreamed 
that one of her children should become a firebrand which 
should consume the whole city. Whereupon, Priam was 
so alarmed, that he ordered that her next child should be 
exposed in a desert place among the mountains, and left 
to perish. Paris was this child, and when an infant, was 
hidden by his mother, that he might not be thus destroyed. 
Paris grew to be a youth of marvellous beauty, and was 
at length brought by his mother to the court of Priam. 
The king was so charmed by his beauty and accomplish- 
ments, that Paris ventured to make himself known, and 
was received by Priam, his father, with great kindness; 
for he was so pleased with the noble youth, that he ceased 
to remember the evil dream. This dream, however, was 
very strangely fulfilled years afterwards. Paris made an 
expedition into Greece, which country was at that time 
divided into many small kingdoms or states, each gov- 
erned by its own king. Agamemnon was king of My cense, 
and his brother Menelaiis was king of Sparta. 

Agamemnon and Menelaiis were the sons of Plisthenes ; 
but as their father died when they were very young, their 
mother Aerope was afterwards married to Atreus ; and 
these two brothers were brought up by their step-father 
as his own children, to whom his name was given, as 
they were called Atridiv. 

Atreus was afterwards murdered, and Agamemnon's 
uncle Thyestes ascended the throne of Mycenae. Aga- 
memnon and his brother Menelaiis then fled to Sparta. 
The king of Sparta agreed to recover the kingdom for 
Agamemnon, if he would marry his daughter Clytem- 



AGAMEMNON. 3 

nestra, and make her his queen. To this Agamemnon 
consented, and with the aid of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, 
he recovered his own kingdom, and married Clytemnestra. 
His brother Menelaiis afterwards became king of Sparta. 

During the expedition into Greece, of Paris, the son 
of King Priam, he visited the court of Sparta, and was 
received most kindly by King Menelaiis. But the hand- 
some and fascinating Paris ill-repaid this courteous recep- 
tion, for he fell in love with Helen, the beautiful wife of 
Menelaiis, and carried her off with him on his return to 
Troy. Menelaiis, enraged at this wicked treachery, per- 
suaded his brother Agamemnon, king of Myceniie, to 
espouse his quarrel, and to join him in waging war with 
the Trojans, to revenge his indignity, and to recover, if 
possible, his wife, the fair Helen, who was so exquisitel}' 
beautiful, that all who saw her fell in love with her. 
Agamemnon was chosen connnander-in-chief of all the 
powerful Grecian princes who now combined their forces 
to fight against Troy. Homer gives us the names of the 
most famous of these Grecian warriors. Agamemnon was 
sovereign lord of all the host, and Achilles was the 
bravest and most valiant man amongst them. But be- 
sides these, there was the yellow-haired Menelaiis, king 
of Sparta, and husband of the beautiful Helen ; Ajax 
Oileus, or, as men called him, the lesser Ajax, king of 
the Locri, swiftest of foot among the Greeks, after the 
great Achilles; Ajax Telamon, from Salamis ; Diomed, 
son of Tydeus, king of Argos, and with him Sthenelus ; 
Nestor, king of Pylos, oldest and wisest among the 
Greeks ; Ulysses, king of Ithaca, most crafty in counsel ; 
Idomeneus, grandson of the great judge Minos, king of 
Crete, and with him Meriones ; Tlepolemus, son of Her- 
cules, from Rhodes ; Eumelus, from Pherae, son of that 



4 AGAMEMNON. 

Alcestis, who died for her husband, and was brought back 
from death by Hercules, according to Grecian mythology ; 
and many more heroes too numerous to mention : but the 
bravest and strongest of all was Ajax, son of Telamon, 
and the best horses were those of Eumelus ; but there was 
none that could compare with Achilles and the horses of 
Achilles, bravest of men, and swiftest of steeds. 

The heroes upon the Trojan side were also great and 
brave. The most famous of their chiefs were Hector, 
son of King Priam, most valiant of all the Trojan war- 
riors ; ^neas, whose father was Anchises, and whose 
mother was supposed to be the goddess Aphrodite ; Pan- 
darus, from Mount Ida, to whom Apollo had given a 
marvellous bow ; Asius, the son of Hyrtacus, who came 
from the broad salt river, the Hellespont ; Pylaemenes, 
king of Paplilagonia ; and Sarpedon from Lycia, whom 
men affirmed to be the son of Zeus himself; and lastly, 
Glaucus his friend. 

When the Grecian fleet had started upon this expedi- 
tion against Troy, a wonderful incident had occurred. 
The fleet of the Greeks was detained b}' contrary winds 
at Aulis, owing to the wrath of the goddess Diana, whom 
King Aoameranon had offended bv killing one of her 
favorite deer. In this emergency Calchas the soothsayer 
was consulted, and he declared that to appease the anger 
of the goddess, Iphigenia, the eldest daughter of King 
Agamemnon, must be sacrificed. She was accordingly led 
to the altar, and was about to be offered as a victim, when 
she is said to have suddenly disappeared, being caught 
up by Diana, who in pity substituted a stag in her place. 
Virgil, however, tells this story somewhat differently ; 
for he relates that Iphigenia was actually sacrificed. The 
goddess having been appeased, the winds were favorable. 



AGAMEMNON. 5 

and the Grecian fleet sailed onward, and arrived safely at 
Troy ; and for nine long years these famous warriors had 
been waoino- war around the walls of that city, within 
which, in the palace of Paris, son of King Priam, was 
concealed the matchlessly beautiful Helen, and much rich 
treasure, which that treacherous but fascinating prince 
had stolen from the Greeks. 

But now within the Grecian camp a strife arises be- 
tween King Agamemnon and Achilles, bravest of all his 
host. The Greeks, having been away from home so 
many years, were accustomed to make frequent raids 
upon the surrounding cities to supply their needs, and 
thus to enable them to continue still longer this weary 
siege. They had thus ruthlessly attacked a city called 
Chr\^sa, sacred to Apollo, where was a temple of that 
god. 

The Greeks, in their plunderings, had not dared to 
molest the temple or its priest ; but they had carried off, 
with other prisoners, the daughter of the priest of Apollo, 
\iamed Chryseis. The spoils obtained from these expedi- 
tions were divided between the various kings and heroes 
in the Grecian host ; and the maiden Chryseis had been 
apportioned as the share of King Agamemnon. The 
next day the priest Chryses came to the Grecian camp, 
bringing much gold, and wearing on his head the priest's 
crown, that men might therel)y reverence him the more. 
He demanded the return of his daughter, and offered his 
gold as her ransom. The Grecian chiefs were favorable 
to his suit, but King Agamemnon angril}' repulsed him, 
exclaiming, — 

" Hence, on thy life, and fly these hostile plains, 
Nor ask, presumptuous, what the king detains. 
Hence with thy laurel crown and golden rod ; 



6 AGAMEMNON, 

Nor trust too far those ensigns of thy god. 

Mine is thy daughter, priest, and shall remain, 

And prayers, and tears, and bribes, shall plead in vain." 

The sorrowful priest turned away in silence, and as he 
walked along the seashore, he besought the aid of his 
god, Apollo, praying : " Hear me, God of the silver bow ! 
If I have built thee a temple, and offered thee the fat of 
many bullocks and rams, hear me ! and avenge me on 
these Greeks." 

And Apollo heard him and descended with awful wrath 
from dread Olympus, where dwelt the gods. The rattle 
of his arrows filled the air, as he twanged his deadly bow, 
and sent the fateful shafts of pestilence upon the Grecian 
fleet below ; meanwhile, enwrapping his own form in 
shadows black as night, from which his baleful darts shot 
forth like lightning's flash. And so for ten long days 
the pestilence raged, till heaps of dead men and beasts 
lined the shore, and the black smoke ascended from 
m^-riad funeral piles. Then Achilles called upon the seer, 
Calchas, to tell them why Apollo was so wroth with them. 
To whom the sage replied, — 

"It is on behalf of his priest that Apollo is so wroth ; 
for when he came to ransom his daughter, Agamemnon 
would not let the maiden go. Now then, ye must send 
her back to Chrysa without ransom, and with her a 
hundred beasts for sacrifice, so that the plague may be 
stayed." 

Theu, with a threatening frown, Kiug Agamemnon 
started from his gorgeous throne, with eyes which flashed 
with angry light, as he exclaimed in fury, — 

"Prophet of plagues, forever boding ill! Still must 
that tongue some evil message bring. I will release the 
maid, that my people may be spared. But for this, my 
share of booty, shall the Greeks requite me." 



AGAMEMNON. 7 

Then Achilles answered, — 

'' We have no treasures from which to make up thv 
loss. Let the maiden go ! and when we capture Trov, 
we will repay thee fourfold." 

Then Agamemnon replied, — 

" Shall I my prize resign while thou art possessed of 
thine ? I will send back the maid to please Apollo ; but 
know thou that I will seize thy share, even the girl 
Briseis, that all may know that I am sovereign here." 

Whereupon, Achilles was so fierce with anger, that he 
fain would have slain the monarch, and had, forsooth, 
half drawn his sword from the scabbard, to thrust it into 
the haughty king. But lo ! the goddess Athen^ stood 
behind him, and caught him by his long yellow locks of 
hair. None saw the goddess, save only Achilles, to 
whom he said, — 

"Art thou come, fair Minerva, to witness these wrongs 
I bear from Atreus' son? If thou dost see his crime, see 
also my proud vengeance." 

Whereupon, he raised his sword to strike ; but the god- 
dess said, — 

" Forbear thy ftuy ! Let great Achilles yield to reason. 
Put up thy sword ; but if thou pleasest, use the dagger of 
thy tongue alone. With that, the gods permit thee to re- 
proach him ; but vengeance, leave thou to the care of 
heaven." 

So spake the goddess, and Achilles thrust his sword 
back into its sheath, and in proud scorn exclaimed, while 
turning to the king with blazing eyes, — 

"Coward! thou rulest sure a puny race, else this had 
been thy last affront. Thou darest not to fight, but 
cowerest like a dog in safe retreat within the camp ; but 
after we have fought and conquered, thou claimest the 



8 AGAMEMNON. 

richest booty ! But know, for this my grievous wrong, 
tlie gods shall avenge it ! And when the Greeks lie in 
heaps before the walls of Troy, slain b}' the dreadful 
Hector, then shalt thou miss the strong arm of Achilles 
from thy side, and thy proud heart shalt mourn the affront 
thy madness gave. For thou hast made the bravest 
Greek thy bitterest enemy." 

Then did Achilles dash his sacred sceptre on the 
ground, saying, — 

" As surely as this sceptre, which was once a branch 
from off a tree, now starred with golden studs and bound 
with bronze, an ensign of Jove's favor, shall never 
blossom more, so surely shalt thou miss the arm of brave 
Achilles, when the Trojans press thee sore. Thou canst 
play the master over others, but think not to master me ! 
As to the maid, m}' prize, which the Greeks gave me, 
let them take it again if they will, but if thou darest to 
invade my tent and touch whate'er is mine, tliy blood shall 
stream forth at the point of my revengeful blade." 

So saying, the great Achilles strode forth from the 
counsel-tent with wrathful looks, and the august brow of 
Agamemnon was overcast with threatening gloom. In 
vain had Nestor, eldest of the Grecian kings and wisest 
of counsellors, endeavored to quell this ominous quarrel. 
His words of reason moved not the two fierce warriors. 
And surely, in this strife, Achilles held the right, and 
Agamemnon showed himself a selfish, proud, and haughty 
monarch. 

The priest's daughter, Chrysei's, was sent back to her 
home with offerings to the god, and Ulysses was appointed 
to conduct her thither. But King Agamemnon would not 
be persuaded to renounce his purpose of seizing upon the 
war-prize which had been awarded to Achilles, namely, 



AGAMEMNON. 9 

the maiden Brisei's ; aod forthwith he sent heralds to the 
tent of Achilles to obtain her. The heralds approached 
the warrior with much dread, for they feared his awful 
wrath. But Achilles said to them, — 

''Fear not, ye heralds! It is no fault of yours that 
you are sent on such an errand." 

Whereupon he commanded that the maiden should be 
brought from her tent and given to the heralds, who led 
her, much against her will, to the haughty Agamemnon. 
Then Achilles called upon his mother Thetis, who was a 
goddess of the sea, to avenge his wrongs. Thetis rose 
like a mist from the waves, and coming to Achilles, who 
sat upon the seashore, she comforted him and asked his 
trouble. Whereupon Achilles told her the cause of his 
anger, and besought her to go to the great Zeus, whom 
Thetis had once aided, when the other gods would have 
bound oreat Jove, by brini2jino: Briareus of the hundred 
hands, who so fought for the mighty Jupiter, that the 
other gods dared no longer defy his power. And owing 
this kindness to the goddess Thetis, her son thought 
rightly that the great Jove would listen to her petitions 
on his behalf. So Achilles asked his mother to go to 
Olympus, and pray Zeus that he would help the sons of 
Troy and give them victory over the Greeks, whose sove- 
reign king had thus dishonored the bravest of all his host. 

This, Thetis did, going to the palace of Jupiter on the 
top of Olympus, and making her prayer in her son's be- 
lialf. Zeus was loath to grant it. for he knew that it 
would anger his wife Here, who loved the Greeks and 
hated the Trojans. Yet on account of the past favor of 
Thetis, he would not refuse, and in giving assent, nodded 
his awful head, thus causing Olympus to shake and trem- 
ble. So Zeus called one of his swift-winged messengers, 
called a Dream, and said, — 



10 AGAMEMNON. 

'*• Fly hence, swift Dream, and to the tent of Agamem- 
non go ! Bid him lead all the Grecians forth to battle 
against Troy. Persuade him that the gods intend to give 
him victory." 

So this false Dream, flying to Agamemnon's side, took 
to itself the shape of wise old Nestor, whom the king 
honored more than all beside, and thus the false Nestor 
counselled, — 

" Sleepest thou, Agamemnon? Arise! for now Zeus 
declares that the immortal gods are favorable to thy 
plans, and through thy mighty hosts will send the doom 
of destruction upon the city of Troy ; and thou shalt reap 
the eternal glor3^" 

Then Agamemnon awoke from sleep and, little think- 
ing how he had been duped by this false Dream, quickly 
donned his tunic, fastened his sandals on his feet, and 
hung from his shoulders his mighty silver-studded sword. 
Wrapping his great cloak around him, he took in his right 
hand his royal sceptre, token of his sovereignty over all 
the Greeks. Thus attired, in martial grandeur, he went 
forth and roused his chiefs, and then the heralds called 
the hosts to battle. Only Achilles sat apart within his 
tent and went not forth to battle with the Greeks. 

Now, as the two forces were about to fight, Paris, the 
Trojan prince, rushed forth and challenged the bravest of 
the Greeks to fight with him. Then Menelaus, whom he 
had so greatly wronged, leapt from his chariot and rushed 
to meet his treacherous foe. But Paris was more beauti- 
ful in form and feature than brave in heart, and seeing 
the man whom he had so cruelly wronged, he was afraid 
to fight, and cowardlike ran back into the Trojan ranks. 
Then his brother, brave Hector, thus rebuked his cow- 
ardice. 



AGAMEMNON. 11 

*' Fair art thou, Paris, beauteous indeed, but ill thy soul 
supplies a form so fair ! Thou makest us the scoru of 
the proud Greeks, by thy unmanly fear. Little will it 
avail thee that thou art in form so stately, when thy soft 
curling locks and shapely limbs are lying in the dust. 
Thy silver lyre, nor all thy blandishments, will naught 
avert thy doom, for thou hast been the curse of Troy and 
ruin of thy race." 

Then Paris, stricken with just shame, replied, — 

'' Thou speakest well. Hector, and thy rebuke is just. 
Thy heart is like iron ; yet are beauty and love also the 
gift of the gods, and not to be despised. Now let Mene- 
laiis and me fight for the fair Helen and all her posses- 
sions, and if he prevail, let him take her, and them, and 
depart to Greece. But if I prevail, then shall the Greeks 
depart in peace without her." 

This saying, which at last betokened some spirit, pleased 
Hector well ; and going before the Trojan ranks, holding 
his spear by the middle, he kept them back. The Greeks 
would have hurled spears upon him, but Agamemnon 
cried out, — 

" Hold ! Hector has somewhat to say to us." 

Then Hector announced that Paris would fight with 
Menelaiis for the fair Helen and all her wealth. To 
which Menelaiis readily agreed, but demanded that King 
Priam should himself come and, with King Agamemnon, 
make a covenant with sacrifice, that the fair Helen and 
all her wealth should go to the one who should prevail. 

When the heralds went to bring the old King Priam, 
he was found on the wall with the beautiful Helen near 
him, to whom he was talking and asking tlie names of 
brave Grecian heroes whom he beheld among the hostile 
host. And in this wise he spake to fair Helen, — 



12 AGAMEMNON. 

"Come near, my daughter, tell me about these old 
friends of thine. Who is that warrior, that I see, so fair 
and strong? There are others taller than he, but none 
of such majesty." 

And Helen answered, — 

"Ah, my father, would that I had died before I left 
the fair land of Greece ! That one is King Agamemnon, 
a good and brave soldier, and my brother-in-law, in the 
old days. And that one is Ulysses of Ithaca, who is 
better in craft and counsel than all other men." 

Then Priam said, — 

' ' Who is that stalwart hero overtopping all others ? " 

"That," said Helen, "is mighty A j ax, the bulwark 
of the Greeks ; and as for the other chiefs, I could name 
them all. But I see not my two brothers. Castor and 
Pollux ;" for she wot not that they were already dead. 

Thereupon came the heralds and told King Priam that 
the armies had called for him. After the covenant be- 
tween the Trojan and Grecian kings, Priam and Agamem- 
non, Hector and Ulysses marked out a space for the fight, 
and Hector shook two pebbles in a helmet, to decide 
which one should be the first to throw the spear, Paris or 
Menelaiis. 

The lot fell upon Paris, and the two warriors having 
armed themselves, came forth into the space and bran- 
dished their spears with wrathful eyes. Then Paris 
threw his spear. It struck the shield of Menelaiis, but 
pierced it not; and thereupon Menelaiis, with a prayer 
to Jupiter, cast his long-shafted spear. It struck the 
shield of Paris, pierced it through, and passing through 
both corselet and tunic, would have bruised the side of 
Paris, but he shrank aside, and so was wounded not. 
Then Menelaiis drew his sword and struck a mighty blow 



AGAMEMNON. 13 

upon the top of Paris' helmet ; but the sword brake in 
four pieces in his hand. Then he ruslied forward and 
seized Paris by the helmet, and fain would have drao-o-ed 
him to the Grecian host, but the goddess Aphrodite 
loosed the strap that was beneath the chin, and the hel- 
met came off in the hand of Menelaiis, and the goddess 
snatched Paris away, covering him with a mist, and put 
him safely in his own palace in Troy. 

Then King Agamemnon said, — 

" Now, ye sons of Troy, give back the fair Helen and 
her wealth ! " 

But just at this time the goddess Athene took upon 
herself the shape of Laodocus, and going to Pandarus, 
the false Laodocus, said, — 

" Darest thou aim an arrow at Menelaiis?'* 

Now Pandarus had a marvellous bow made from the 
horns of a wild goat and tipped with beaten gold, and 
Pandarus strung his bow, his comrades, meanwhile, 
hiding him behind their shields. Then took he a sharp- 
pointed arrow from his quiver and laid it on the bow- 
string and let it flv. Right well the aim was made ; but 
the Sfods decreed that the dart should not be fatal. For 
though it passed through belt and corselet and strong 
girdle, and pierced the skin so that the red blood rushed 
out, which sight filled Menelaiis and King Agamemnon 
with sore dismay, Menelaiis soon perceived the barb of 
the arrow, and so knew that the wound was not fatal ; 
and when it was drawn forth by the physician Machaon, 
and the blood was staunched with healing drugs. King 
Agamemnon rejoiced that he should not thus lose his 
brave brother Menelaiis. 

Then the mighty hosts of Greeks and Trojans went 
forward to the battle, and on either side the gods urged 



14 AGAMEMNON. 

them on, Athene aiding the Greeks, and Ares — called also 
Mars — strengthening the Trojan warriors. Manj' were 
the valiant exploits that da}' performed ; but we can men- 
tion but a few of them. So close pressed host on host, 
that the armies dashed together, shield on shield and 
spear on spear. Ajax Telamon slew Simoisius, and 
Antiphon, son of King Priam, aimed at Ajax, but missing 
him, slew Leucus, the friend of the valiant Ulysses. 

Whereupon, Ulysses, in great anger, to avenge his 
death, strode boldly midst the Trojan ranks and hurled 
his spear at Democoon, a son of Priam, whom he slew. 
At iengtli the Trojan hosts were borne backward by the 
might}' onslaught of the Greeks, till Apollo cried from 
the heights of Pergamos, — 

"On, Trojans 1 The flesh of these Greeks is not stone 
or iron, that ye cannot pierce it ; and remember that the 
great Achilles fights not with them to-day ! " 

Athene also urged the Greeks to valiant deeds. This 
goddess aroused Diomed to battle, making a wondrous 
fire shine forth from his helmet, which made him seem a 
god, and he raged through the battle so furiously, that he 
was now seen amongst the Grecian ranks, now boldly in- 
vading the Trojan forces, and striking down his foes 
with 'mighty arm. Then Pandarus aimed an arrow at 
him and smote him on the shoulder. But the brave 
Diomed cared not for the arrow, and leaping from his 
chariot he called to Sthenelus, his charioteer, to draw the 
arrow from the wound ; and praying to Athene for aid, 
he rushed madly into the Trojan ranks, slaying a man at 
every blow. 

Meanwhile, ^neas, driving his swift chariot, said to 
Pandarus, — 

" Climb up into my chariot, and thou shalt fight, and 1 
will drive." 



AGAMEMNOM. 15 

So Pandiirus mounted the chariot, and the two drove 
towards Diomed, and as they came near, Pandarus cast 
his spear, which passed through the shield of Diomed and 
reached his corselet ; whereupon Pandarus cried, — 

'' Ha, now he bleeds ! Low will this haughty Grecian 
lie ! " 

But Diomed replied, — 

" Thy dart has erred ! Now I will try my spear." 

And straightway he hurled his keen lance toward his 
boasting foe. Through nose and jaw it crashed, and cleft 
the tongue in two ; and the bright point came forth be- 
neath the chin. 

Pandarus fell from the chariot mortally wounded, and 
^neas leapt to the ground with drawn spear to defend 
the dead body of his friend. But Diomed raised a huge 
stone and hurled it at ^neas, and crushed his hip-bone, 
felling him to the earth. 

Then had brave ^Eneas perished, but his goddess 
mother. Aphrodite, caught him in her white arms and 
threw her veil about him. But so great was the rage of 
Diomed, that he spared not even the goddess, but rushing 
upon her, he wounded her in the wrist, and with a shriek 
of pain she dropped her son ; but Apollo caught him up 
and covered him with a thick mist. Thrice Diomed pur- 
sued, and thrice Apollo drove him back. But as the rash 
Diomed advanced a fourth time, the god exclaimed, — 

"O son of Tydeus, beware! Nor think to match the 
immortal gods ! " 

So Apollo carried ^neas out of the battle and placed 
him in safety in Troy. Meanwhile, fair Venus, pale from 
the wound which mortal man had dared inflict, was con- 
ducted by swift-winged Tris to the stern god Mars, her 
brother ; and Venus begged his car to mount the distant 



16 AGAMEMNON. 



^ 



skies, where in the fair realms of the gods her wounded 
hand was healed by sacred balm. Then Mars went down 
upon the field of battle to aid the Trojans, and Hector 
rushed to the front with the god Mars by his side ; and he 
dealt death and destruction through the Grecian ranks. 
Juno and Minerva saw him from Mount Olympus, and 
they prayed Jupiter to allow them to stop him in his fury. 
The mighty Zeus consented, and the two goddesses 3'oked 
horses to the chariot of Juno and passed down to earth 
with flying strides. Having reached the battle-field, Juno 
took the shape of Stentor with the lungs of brass, whose 
voice was as the voices of fifty men, and thus she cried, — 

"Shame, men of Greece! When Achilles fought, the 
Trojans dare not leave the city ; but now they fight even 
by the very ships." Then Minerva chided Diomed for 
want of bravery, to whom he replied: "I know thee, 
great goddess, daughter of Jupiter! and 'tis thy com- 
mands I obey. Thou didst bid me fight with none of the 
immortals save only with Aphrodite ; and therefore I 
gave place to Hector, for I perceived that he was aided 
by great Mars." 

But Athene answered: "Heed not Ares! drive thy 
chariot at him and hurl thy spear. This morning did 
stern Mars promise to aid the Greeks, and now he joins 
with our Trojan foes." 

So saying, the goddess pushed the charioteer of Diomed 
from his place, and herself mounted and seized the reins 
and lashed the horses furiously. With swift speed they 
drove together till they found the god Mars, or Ares, 
where he had just slain Periphas the ^tolian. Minerva 
was even invisible to the god, for she had donned the hel- 
met of Hades ; and so Ares, not seeing her, cast his spear 
at Diomed ; but the goddess caught the spear and turned 



AGAMEMNON, 17 

it aside. Then Diomed thrust forth his spear, and Minerva 
leaned upon it, so that it even pierced the side of the god 
Mars, who shouted so loudly with the pain that the Greeks 
and Trojans trembled with fear ; while the god of war, 
wounded by the fair goddess Athene, covered himself 
with a thunder-cloud, and in much rage ascended to 
Olympus. 

When Ares had departed, the Greeks prevailed again ; 
but the seer Helenus said to Hector and iEneas : " Draw 
back the Trojan army and encourage them ; and you, 
Hector, go within the city and bid thy mother queen, 
with the daughters of Troy, take the costliest robe she 
hath, and go to the temple of Athene and offer it to the 
goddess with prayers and sacrifice, that perchance she 
may relent and have pity on us and keep this terrible 
Diomed from our walls." 

This counsel prevailed, and Hector departed to the city, 
whence he dispatched his queen mother to Athene's tem- 
ple, and exhorted his brother Paris to arm himself and 
come forth to battle. Hector then took a fond farewell 
of his much-loved wife Andromache and his only child, 
called beautiful-headed as a star, and departed with Paris, 
who came forth clad in shining armor ; and they fell upon 
the hosts of the Greeks and slew many chiefs of fame. 

Again came Athene to help the Greeks ; and meeting 
the god Apollo, they agreed to stay the battle for that 
day ; and to this end inspired Hector and King Agamem- 
non to agree that Hector should fight alone with the brav- 
est of the Greeks, while both armies should rest from 
battle. 

Then Menelaiis desired to meet brave Hector in single 
combat. But King Agamemnon would not consent to 
this, fearing his brother would perish. Whereupon it was 



18 AGAMEMNON. 

resolved to decide the matter by lot, which fell upon Ajai 
the Greater, who, having armed himself, stepped forth to 
battle with the mighty Hector. First Hector hurled 
his spear, which passed tlirough six folds of Ajax's 
shield. Then Ajax threw his lance, striking proud Hec- 
tor's shield. Through shield, corselet, and tunic it passed, 
but Hector shrank from the sharp point, and the flesh was 
not pierced. Then again they rushed together with wild 
fury. And Ajax drove his spear at Hector's shield and 
grazed his neck, so that the blood leaped forth. Then 
Hector hurled a might}' stone at Ajax ; but his shield 
broke not. Whereupon Ajax raised a mightier stone and 
threw it with such aim that it broke the shield of Hector 
and felled him backwards to the ground. But Apollo 
raised him up, and as they drew their swords for deadlier 
conflict, the heralds held their sceptres between them and 
bid them cease. So Hector and Ajax, both might}' war- 
riors and brave of heart, agreed to part as friends ; in 
token whereof. Hector gave to Ajax a silver-studded 
sword, and Ajax to Hector a buckler splendid with pur- 
ple. So they parted, and the conflict was stayed that 
night. In the morning came Trojan heralds to King Aga- 
memnon's host, saying: " This is the word of Priam and 
the sons of Troy. Paris will give back all the treasures 
of the fair Helen and much more besides, but the fair 
Helen herself will he not give up. But grant a truce that 
we may bury our dead." 

So the truce was given, and the dead of both armies 
were burnt. Then the Greeks and Trojans both feasted 
through the night. But all through the hours of darkness 
the terrible thunder rolled on Mount Olympus ; for mighty 
Zeus was counselling evil against the hapless Trojans. 

When the morning came, the two hosts again went 



^1 



AGAMEMNON. 19 

forth to battle with each other. Till midday neither side 
prevailed ; bat then great Jupiter sent fear and panic 
amidst the Grecian forces, and they fled to their ships in 
terror. 

As the Greeks were flying in wild confusion, brave 
Hector driving in his chariot pursued them ; and called to 
his horses, " Now Xanthus, ^Ethon, Lampus, and Podar- 
gus, speed ye well ! Ye Flame of Fire, White Foot, and 
Brilliant, named ! carry me fast, and well repay the ten- 
der care of my sweet wife Andromache, who often from 
her fair white hands has fed thee ! For I would win old 
Nestor's marvellous shield of purest gold, and strip from 
off proud Diomed his boasted breastplate, wrought by 
the mighty Vulcan." 

But Jupiter willed not that this should be ; for King 
Agamemnon prayed aloud to Zeus for succor, and Jupiter 
heard his prayer, in token whereof he sent a sign, namely ; 
an eagle flew above the Grecian hosts and dropped a kid 
out of his claws. Then did the Greeks take courage and 
renewed the fight with vigor. But the darkness came, and 
each host rested on their arms. 

Meanwhile, King Agamemnon called a council of war, 
and fain would have returned to Greece and leave this 
invincible city of Troy. But brave King Diomed would 
not receive such craven counsel, and angrily exclaimed, — 

" Even though all the men of Greece depart, yet will I 
and Sthenelus abide the doom of Troy, for surely the 
gods have brought us hither." 

To these brave words the Grecian chiefs agreed ; and 
wise Nestor counselled that King Agamemnon should 
send to brave Achilles and seek to make peace with him 
that they might have the strong help of his mighty arm. 
To which King Agamemnon consented, and sent messen- 



20 AGAMEMNON. 

gers to the tent of Achilles to seek his favor, promising 
him seven Ivettles of brass, ten talents of gold, twenty 
caldrons, twelve fleet horses, seven women slaves skilled 
in the work of the loom, and, more than all, the return of 
the maid Briseis, the cause of all their quarrel ; and when 
Troy should be taken, much spoil besides. And even 
more ; for when they should return to Greece, King Aga- 
memnon promised him one of his own daughters for his 
wife, and seven cities by the sea. But all this moved not 
the wrathful soul of stern Achilles, and he would not be 
appeased ; nor would he come to help the Greeks against 
the Trojans, but still sat silent in his tent. Then it was 
decided that Diomed and Ulysses should go that night 
disguised into the Trojan camp, to spy out, if possible, 
their strength and plans. This same strategy had Hector 
also planned, and had already sent one Dolon, swift of 
foot, towards the Grecian host. But as he ran he met 
Diomed and UWsses, who seized him, and under threat- 
enings forced him to reveal the Trojan secrets. Then 
did they slay Dolon, and forthwith proceeded to where 
some men of Thrace, allies of the Trojans, lay sleeping. 
These Thracians possessed most matchless steeds — - 
horses so fair and tall, whiter than snow and fleeter than 
the winds. Diomed and Ulysses would fain secure these 
as a rich prize, and so the}^ slew the sleeping Thracians 
and led the captured horses back to the Grecian hosts, 
and arrived in safety at the ships. The next day the 
battle waged hot again. Ulysses was wounded, and Paris 
shot an arrow and pierced the brave physician Machaon. 
Meanwhile, Achilles was standing on his ship and looking 
upon the conflict. When he beheld Nestor bearing the 
wounded Machaon to the ships, he called to his friend 
Patroclus and bid him see if Machaon 's wound was fatal. 



AGAMEMNON. 21 

Most fierce the battle raged. On the left, the Grecians 
prevailed, but on the right brave Hector and his host 
fought even to the very ships, dealing most deadly blows. 
So great were the shouts of battle that old Nestor, who 
was tending the wounded Machaon, was roused ; and 
going forth he met King Agamemnon, and with him Dio- 
med and Ulysses, who had been wounded that day. Then 
they counselled together. Again Agamemnon advised 
flight ; but the others thought it not good to flee thus, and 
they counselled King Agamemnon that he should go to 
the Grecian ranks, bidding them bear themselves bravely 
and put courage into their hearts. This did he do, and 
roused their waning strength to fresh exploits. Then 
Ajax smote brave Hector with a mighty stone, which 
felled him to the ground ; and the Greeks, with a great 
cry, rushed forth to bear him to their ranks ; but the 
Trojans held their shields before him, and his friends 
lifted him up and carried him to a place of safety. But 
he was sorely bruised. Then Apollo, at Jupiter's bid- 
ding, poured courage into his heart and healed him of his 
wound, so that he rushed once more upon the field of 
battle, strong and well and valiant as ever. Then were 
the Greeks struck with dire dismay. Then did Patroclus 
lament to Achilles on account of the ill fortune of the 
Greeks, and besought the mighty warrior, if he would not 
fight himself in their behalf, to let him go accompanied 
by the valiant Myrmidons, whom Achilles always led to 
battle. At which the heart of Achilles was moved ; and 
he said, — 

" I will not go to battle until it reaches my own ships, 
but thou mayest put my armor upon thee and lead my 
Myrmidons to the fight." 

So this was done ; and when the Trojans beheld these 



22 AGAMEMNOy. 

famous Myrmidons led by one who wore the armor of 
the mighty Achilles, their hearts were faint with fear, for 
they supposed great Achilles himself had come against 
them. Thrice did Patroclus rush against the men of Troy, 
and each time slew nine chiefs of fame ; but the fourth 
time Apollo stood behind him and struck him, and his 
eyes were darkened, and the helmet fell off his head, so 
that the waving plumes were soiled with dust. Never 
before had this proud helmet of Achilles touched the 
ground. Then Apollo broke his spear, and struck the 
shield from his arms, and loosed his corselet. Then all- 
amazed, poor Patroclus stood defenceless ; so Hector 
struck him dead, and seized the matchless armor of the 
mighty Achilles. 

Fierce was the fight about the body of Patroclus, and 
many chiefs fell dead striving to obtain the prize. Then 
fled Antilochus to bear the ill tidings to the great Achilles, 
who, upon hearing of this dire defeat, poured dust upon 
his head, and called upon his goddess-mother to come to 
his aid. 

"Why weepest thou, my son?" said the sea-goddess 
Thetis, rising from the waves. 

" My friend Patroclus is dead, and Hector has my 
arms I gave him to wear, and, as for me, I care not to 
live unless I can avenge myself." 

Thus Thetis said, — 

" Be comforted, my son ; to-morrow I will go to 
mighty Vulcan ; he shall forge new arms for thee." 

Even as they spoke together, so sore the Trojans 
pressed the Greeks, that Jupiter sent Iris to Achilles, and 
bade him show himself to the Greeks that they might be 
filled with courage. 

" How can I go without arms?" replied Achilles. 



1 



AGAMEMNON. 23 

But the gods gave him courage, aud he went, and 
Athene put her matchless shield upon his shoulders, and 
wrapped a golden halo round his head, so that he seemed 
clothed in godlike armor ; and he shouted to the Trojans 
with a mighty voice, which so filled them with fear that 
they fell back, and the horses of the Trojan chariots were 
so terrified at the flaming fire above his head that they 
thrice fell back, and trampled on the Trojans, as thrice 
the awful voice of Achilles was heard and his shining 
form revealed. Thus was the body of Patroclus then se- 
cured, and carried on a bier, Achilles walking, weeping 
by his side. 

That night the conflict rested. Meanwhile, Thetis the 
goddess went to the dread Vulcan, and prayed him make 
new armor for her son Achilles. To this did stern He- 
phaestus consent, saying, " Be of good cheer ! I will obey 
thy wish ; for kind thou wast to me when my mother 
thrust me forth from heaven because she saw I was 
deformed and lame. I will make such arms for Achilles 
as the gods themselves might proudly wear." 

So great Vulcan wrought at his mighty forge. First he 
made a ponderous shield, and wrought upon it the earth, 
and sk}^ and sea, and sun, and moon, and stars. He 
pictured upon it, also, two cities ; one at peace, and one 
in dire confusion where war raged. In the peaceful city, 
they led a bride to her home with music and dancing, and 
women stood to see the show, and in the market-place 
judges sat, and men bartered. But around the other city, 
an army was besieging, and soldiers stood upon the walls, 
defending. Also, he wrought fields where men ploughed, 
and others reaped, and vineyards where youths and 
maidens gathered baskets of grapes while minstrels 
played on harps of gold. Also, he wrought herds of 



24 AGAMEMNON. 

oxen going to tlie pasture, and sheepfolds, and a dance 
of 3'ouths and maidens who wore coronets of gold and 
belts of silver. Then, too, he pictured a fierce fight be- 
tween lions and angry bulls. Around the shield he 
wrought the mighty ocean. He made also a corselet, 
brightei' than fire, and a helmet of gold. At dawn the 
ofoddess Thetis brouoht to her son this marvellous armor, 
which when Achilles saw, his eyes flashed wild with joy ; 
and seizing them, he put them on most eagerly, and 
rushed forth to rouse the Greeks to battle. Then an 
assembly was called, and Achilles stood up in the midst, 
saying, he had put away his wrath, and King Agamem- 
non, who had been wounded in the battle, declared that 
he had been wrong, and straightway commanded to be 
sent to the tent of Achilles all that he had promised him, 
including the maid Briseis, which was done. The Greeks 
o-athered ao-ain to battle. Then did the fioht wao-e sore 
against the Trojans, who fled within the city gates ; only 
brave Hector remained outside to meet the mighty Achil- 
les, who rushed towards him to engage in single combat. 
Then did King Priam and Queen Hecuba beseech their 
much-loved son that he would come within the city walls, 
and not risk his life by thus meeting this dread foe ; but 
Hector answered, — 

" "Woe is me if I go within the walls ! " 

But as Achilles came near, brandishing his great Pelian 
spear, while the flash of his arms was as a flame of fire, 
Hector trembled, and dared not abide to meet him, but 
fled around the walls, Achilles pursuing. Thrice they ran 
round the city, while the immortal gods looked down upon 
them from dread Olympus, and Jupiter said : " My heart 
is grieved for Hector. Come, ye gods ! shall we save 
him ? " 



AGAMEMNON. 25 

But Minerva — she who was called the goddess of wis- 
dom, for she sprang forth from the mighty head of Jove 
completely armed — thus counselled, — 

"Great Sire, is it well to rescue a man already 
doomed to die ? If it be thy august will, then do it ; but 
the other gods approve not." 

To whom Zeus answered, — 

" My heart is loath, but be it as thou wilt." 

Then did the goddess descend down from high Olym- 
pus in hot haste, and Athene lighted from the air at 
Achilles' side, and whispered: " This is our day of glory, 
great Achilles ! Hector shall be slain ; but tarry a mo- 
ment, that I may give him heart to meet thee in battle ; 
so shalt thou slay him." 

Then Minerva took the form of Dei'phobus, and came 
near to Hector, saying, " Achilles presseth thee hard, my 
brother ; let us stay and fight him." 

Then was brave Hector glad to find one of his brothers 
faithful to him, and answered, — 

"I alwa^'s loved thee best of all my brothers, good 
Deiphobus, and much more now to know thou darest to 
stand by my side in this hour of deadly peril." 

Thus was Hector encouraged to meet Achilles, and 
Hector said to him: "Thrice, great Achilles, hast thou 
pursued me round the walls of Troy, and I dared not 
withstand thee ; but now I will meet thee like a warrior. 
If Jupiter gives me the victory, I will do no dishonor to 
thy body; only thine armor will I take. Do thou the 
same to me." 

But Achilles frowned, and answered, — 

" I make no covenants with thee. There is no agree- 
ment between wolves and sheep. Show thyself a warrior 
if thou canst. Athene shall kill thee by my spear." 



26 AGAMEMNON; 

Then did the}^ meet iu deadliest conflict. Achilles 
threw his mighty spear ; but Hector, crouching, avoided 
it, and the great spear fixed itself in the ground beyond. 
But, unseen by Hector, Athene brought it back to proud 
Achilles. Whereupon, Hector cried, " Thou hast missed 
thy aim, great Achilles. Look out for my spear ! " 

And as he spake, he threw his long-shafted spear with 
so good an aim, that it struck the very middle of Achilles' 
shield ; but it pierced it not, and it bounded far away. 
And when Hector turned to his supposed brother, Deipho- 
bus, to get from him another spear, lo ! he was gone ; 
and Hector knew then that his doom had come. Then 
thought he to himself : " Though Athen^ has cheated me, 
and Jupiter and Apollo are against me, if I must die, I 
will die in such manner as shall do honor to my name." 
Then he drew his mighty sword, and rushed upon Achil- 
les. But at that same instant Achilles charged to meet 
him, and holding his shining shield before him, with his 
helmet plumes waving in the air, he raised his long- 
pointed spear, which gleamed like a star, and drove it 
through the neck of the brave Hector, so that the point 
stood out behind ; and Hector fell dying in the dust. 
Then with his last breath, he besought Achilles to spare 
his body from the Greeks ; for King Priam would ransom 
it with much gold and treasure, to give it burial rites. 
But Achilles, moved with fierce wrath, cried, — 

"Dog, seek not to entreat me! No gold could ran- 
som thee." 

Then Hector died, and Achilles drew out the spear 
from the corpse, and stripped off the arms. Then great 
Achilles did a shocking deed ; for he bound the body of 
the dead Hector to his chariot, letting the brave and noble 
head lie in the dust ; and so he dragged the corpse of the 



AGAMEMNON. 27 

valiant Trojan round the walls of Troy, even to the 
Grecian ships. And sorrowing Priam saw him from the 
walls ; and fair Andromache, the wife of Hector, also 
beheld this dreadful spectacle, and thereupon fell in a 
deadly swoon ; and from her beautiful head dropped the 
golden wreath and diadem, which Aphrodite gave her on 
her bridal day. 

Then did old King Priam gather rich gifts, and aided 
by the gods, mount his swift chariot and go to the tent of 
great Achilles, to beg the body of his much loved son, 
brave Hector, praying to Jupiter that Achilles might have 
pity on him. This did Jove grant ; for Achilles received 
him kindly, and gave up the body of dead Hector, which 
King Priam carried back into the city of Troy. For nine 
days the people wailed and mourned, and gathered much 
wood for a funeral pile, upon which they laid brave 
Hector ; and when his body was burnt to ashes, they 
gathered up the white bones and put them in a chest of 
gold, and covered it with purple. This chest they placed 
in a coffin and laid upon it man^- stones, even until they 
had raised a mighty mound above it. Thus did they 
bury the valiant Hector, bravest of Trojan princes. 

Such is a brief outline of the story of the famous Trojan 
War, as told by the illustrious Homer in his matchless 
poem of the " Iliad." Now we return to the few further 
facts regarding King Agamemnon which can be culled 
from history. 

There are two different accounts of the final overthrow 
and capture of Troy. According to one of these, Antenor 
and ^neas treacherously betra3'ed the Palladium to the 
Greeks, and at the same time threw open the gates of the 
city at night. The other account relates that the capture 
was effected by the stratagem of the wooden horse, which 



28 AGAMEMNON. 

vf2i^ planned by the cunning of Ulysses. A huge, hollow I 
structure resembling a horse, was filled with armed men, | 
and left standing in the plain, while the Greeks went on 
board their ships and sailed to the island of Teuedos, 
which lay not far distant. By an artful manoeuvre, the 
Trojans were made to believe that this horse was an 
offering to Minerva, and that they would achieve a great 
triumph by carrying it into the city. Accordingly they 
made a breach in the wall, and transported the horse 
within. In the dead of night the Greeks broke out of 
their concealment, and set tlie city on fire. The fleet, on 
a signal given, sailed back from Tenedos ; the aruiy 
landed. Troy was taken and destroyed. 

This event is usually placed about 1184 b.c. In the 
division of the spoils, after the taking of Troy, Cas- 
sandra, one of the daughters of King Priam, fell to the 
lot of Agamemnon. She was endued with the gift of 
prophecy, and warned Agamemnon not to return to 
Mycenae. This warning, however, was disregarded by 
the king, who, upon his return from Troy, was carried by 
a storm to tliat part of the coast of Argolis where ^gis- 
thus, the sou of Thyestes, resided. This king, ^gisthus, 
had entered into a wicked agreement with Clytemnestra, 
wife of Agamemnon, to put that monarch to death upon 
his return from Troy, so that JEgisthus could seize the 
throne of M^'cenae, and marry Queen Clytemnestra. 
There are two accounts of the death of Agamemnon. 
One states that ^gisthus had set a watchman, with a 
promise of a large reward, to give him the earliest tidings 
of the return of the king. As soon as he learned that 
Agamemnon's fleet was on the coast, he went out to wel- 
come him, and invited him to his mansion. At the ban- 
quet in the evening, with the consent of Clytemnestra, he 



»fr t' 



AGAMEMNON. 29 

placed twenty armed men ^ conce* j^ it, who fell on 
King Agamemnon and killed hun, to,. with Cassandra 

and all their attendants. Another account makes Agi. 
memnon to have fallen by the hands of his wife Clytem- 
nestra, after he had just come forth from a bath, and 
while he was endeavoring to put on a garment, the sleeves 
of which she had previously sewed together, as well as the 
opening for his head ; thus giving her time to commit the 
bloody deed before any succor could reach him. His 
death, however, was avenged by his son Orestes. 

With regard to the extent of Agamemnon's sway, 
Homer states that he ruled over many islands, and over 
all Argos ; meaniug not the city Argos, over which 
Diomed ruled, but a large portion of the Peloponnesus, 
including particularly the cities of Mycenae and Tiryns. 
Homer also says that Agamemnon possessed the most 
powerful fleet ; and as he was chosen the sovereign of all 
the Grecian kings, and commander-in-chief of all the 
Grecian hosts during the Trojan War, he may doubtless 
be called the greatest and most famous of all the more 
ancient Grecian rulers. 



30 CYRUS THE GREAT, 

t 

! 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 

599-529 B.C. 

"Death makes no conquest of this conqueror ; 
For now he lives in fame, though not in life." 

Shakespeare. 

IN a lonely and desolate country, in the depths of a 
dark forest, at the edge of a yawning precipice, there 
once lay an infant, robed in costly garments, which be- 
tokened noble or royal birth. The baby lay in a small 
basket cradle, made of golden wires and lined with richly 
embroidered cushions. It seemed to be slumbering, for 
it moved not, even when the afternoon shadows gathered 
more densely around it ; and a rapacious bird of prey 
might have been seen hovering above its dangerous re- 
treat, and the noise of wild beasts was heard in the dark 
forests around. Was there no one near to protect and 
care for this lovely child? Ah, see ! as that vulture swoops 
down towards its helpless victim, a lonely watcher rushes 
forth from the forest, and drawing his bow, an arrow flies 
into the heart of the bird, which falls dead into the awful 
chasm below. But why does not the babe awake? and 
why is it left in this desolate spot ? Just then a lion steals 
out of the brushwood, and after a stealthy glance at the 
tempting prey so near his reach, he prepares to spring. 
But again the watcher leaps forth from the shadow, and 
hurls a sharp javelin with so true an aim that the lordly 
beast is mortally wounded, and retreats to the forest, 
roaring with pain. And still the infant sleeps on. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 31 

Just outside of the dreary forest is a poor herdsman's 
hut. Here, too, might have been found an infant ; but it 
is crowing and smiling as it raises its chubby fists to its 
mouth and tries to catch the sunshine, which streams in 
through the open door, and falls upon the wall over its 
head. This baby is clothed in the coarse garments of a 
peasant's child. And yet the infant in the costly robes, 
in the wild forest, is really the dead child of a poor herds- 
man ; and this crowing, laughing baby, dressed in peas- 
ant clothes, and lying in the lowly hut, is none other than 
the future Cyrus the Great, upon whom hang the destinies 
of a vast empire. The remarkable story regarding the 
birth and early boyhood of Cyrus the Great is recounted 
by Herodotus, one of the greatest and earliest of Grecian 
historians. Herodotus and Xenophon— a noted Grecian 
general, as well as historian — are the chief sources of 
information regarding most of the important historical 
events of that period of the world. Some parts of their 
accounts are thought to be historical romances, founded 
on facts ; but as they have become a part of the history 
of those times, I shall gather the story of Cyrus from the 
events related by both these writers. 

About 599 B.C. there were three kingdoms in the centre 
of Asia : Assyria, Media, and Persia. Astyages was king 
of Media. One night Astyages awoke from a terrible 
dream : he had dreamed that a fearful inundation hnd 
overwhelmed his kingdom. As the deluge seemed in some 
mysterious manner to be connected in his mind witii his 
only daughter, Mandane, he imagined that it portended 
that evil should come to his throne through her children. 
And so he arranged that she should marry Cambyses, rul- 
ing prince of Persia. In this manner he hoped to remove 
her so far distant, and place her in so weak a kingdom, 
that he need have no fears. 



32 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

A year after his daughter's marriage to the king of 
Persia, Astyages had another dream, — of a great vine 
which overspread his kingdom. This vine also appeared 
to be associated in his mind with his daughter. So he 
called the sootlisayers, who declared that it portended the 
future power of his daughter's son, who should become a 
king. 

Astyages was now so alarmed that he determined to 
destroy the child. So, with seeming kindness, he invited 
his daughter Mandane to make him a visit. He placed 
her in a palace and surrounded her with his own spies and 
servants. As soon as the infant son was born, Astyages 
sent for an officer of his court, named Harpagus, whom he 
thought was unscrupulous enough to obey his evil com- 
mands. Astyages ordered Harpagus to go and request 
the attendants of Mandane to allow him to see the infant ; 
and then, under pretence that his grandfather Astyages 
desired that the infant should be brought to him, Harpa- 
gus should take the child away, and in some manner cause 
it to be put to death. 

Harpagus did not dare to refuse, and accordingly went 
to the palace in which Mandane was residing. Her atten- 
dants, not suspecting his evil designs, arrayed the infant 
in its most beautiful robes, and delivered it into his care. 
Harpagus took the child home and consulted with his wife 
what he should do. He did not dare to disobey the king, 
and also, as Mandane was the daughter of the king, he 
feared to carry out the terrible deed himself. 

In his perplexity he sent for one of his herdsmen, named 
Mitridates, living near wild and desolate forests. When 
Mitridates arrived, Harpagus gave the infant to him, com- 
manding him to expose it in the forests for three days, 
and when the child was dead, to send him word. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 



33 



The herdsman dared not refuse this wicked mission, and 
took the child home to Jiis hut. His wife Spaco had at 
that time just lost an infant of the same age, and its dead 
body was still unburied. When she saw the beautiful babe 
of Mandane, she implored her husband to let her keep it 
in place of her dead child, who was accordingly arrayed in 
the costly robes of the young prince, while the royal baby 
was dressed in the coarse garments of the little dead peas- 
ant. The body of the dead infant was then placed in the 
royal cradle, or basket, in which the little prince had been 
carried from the palace ; and after being exposed in the 
forest for three days, attended by watchers to keep away 
the wild beasts, the herdsman sent word to Harpagus that 
the infant was dead. Harpagus sent trusty messengers to 
see if the report was true ; and when they saw the dead 
infant in the royal robes, they returned with the assurance 
that his orders had been complied with, and that they had 
seen the dead child. Harpagus gave orders to have the 
body buried, and sent word to King Astyages that the 
infant was dead. 

The truth about the young Cyrus was not discovered 
until ten years after, and came about in a very strange 
way. Cyrus had now grown to be a strong, bright boy of 
ten years of age, and was supposed to be the son of the 
peasant herdsman. Several of the sons of the Median 
nobles were accustomed to meet in the neighborhood where 
he lived, for their sports, and Cyrus was always their 
leader in all pursuits. The story goes that he was once 
chosen as their king in a boyish game ; and one of the 
nobles' sons, being one of his subjects, and having dis- 
obeyed his commands, the boy king Cyrus punished him 
very severely. The father of the young noble complained 
to King Astyages of this ill treatment which his son had 



34 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

suffered at the hands of a peasant boy. Whereupon, the 
herdsman Mitridates and his supposed son were sum- 
moned to appear at court. 

When the young Cyrus entered the presence of the king, 
Astyages was astonished at his manly bearing and his 
unusual beauty, and with an unaccountable feeling of 
interest in the supposed peasant boy, he inquired if the 
complaint of the noble was true. The little disguised 
prince looked up into the face of the dread monarch, in 
whose presence all his subjects trembled, and with perfect 
self-possession, replied, — • 

"My lord, what I have done I am able to justify. I 
did punish this boy, and I had a right to do so. I was 
king, and he was my subject, and he would not obey me. 
If you think that for this I deserve punishment myself, 
here I am ; I am ready to suffer for it." 

Astyages was so surprised at this unlooked-for answer 
that he hastily commanded that Mitridates should be 
brought before him ; and under threats of severe punish- 
ment', he demanded that he should tell him the truth about 
the lad; for he had grave doubts about his being the 
peasant's son. Mitridates, frightened by the stern man- 
ner of the king, confessed the truth, and related all the 
circumstances regarding the infant who had been com- 
mitted to him by Harpagus. 

Astyages had deeply regretted his evil intentions towards 
his grandson, which, as he supposed, had ended in his 
death, and gladly claimed Cyrus as his own. But with 
strange inconsistency, he was equally incensed against 
Harpagus, who had dared to disobey his commands, by 
not causing the infant to be put to death ; and he deter- 
mined to celebrate in a strange and most shocking man- 
ner his joy at the recovery of his grandson, and his anger 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 35 

at the disobedience of Harpagus. So with wicked crafti- 
ness he sent word to Harpagus that his grandson had 
been discovered, and commanded that Harpagus should 
send his son, a boy about thirteen years of age, up to the 
palace to be a companion for young Cyrus. Furthermore, 
he announced that he was about to celebrate his joy at 
the recovery of his grandson, by a grand festival, at which 
he invited Harpagus to be present. 

Harpagus suspecting no evil, and rejoicing at the 
happy sequel of that deed which had occasioned him 
much disquiet, having sent his son to the palace, accord- 
ing to the command of the king, related to his wife the 
strange events which had taken place. Neither of them 
were suspicious of any evil design in this seeming kindli- 
ness of Astyages, and thought it a fitting honor for their 
son, that he should be chosen as the companion of Prince 
Cyrus. Harpagus went to the festival, and was given 
a seat of honor at the table. Various dishes were set 
before the guests, and the attendants were especiall}^ 
attentive to see that Harpagus was most bountifully 
served. At the end of the feast, Astyages asked Har- 
pagus how he had liked his fare. Harpagus expressed 
himself as being well pleased. The king then ordered 
the servants to bring in a basket, which they uncovered 
before Harpagus, and he beheld with horror J;he head, 
hands, and feet of his own son. 

The story relates that Harpagus did not displa}^ his 
terril^le despair by word or look ; and when the wicked 
king asked him if he knew what he had been eating, he 
replied that he did, and whatever was the will of the 
king was pleasing to him. Such shocking cruelties 
reveal the wickedness of those despotic times. 

Harpagus satisfied his revenge against the cruel Asty- 



36 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

ages, many years afterwards, iu a manner which will be 
disclosed as this story continues. A king whose greed of 
power could condemn an own grandson to death would 
not scruple at other crimes. Astyages now again con- 
sulted the soothsayers as to his safety in recognizing 
Cyrus as his grandson and giving him his royal place at 
court. The Magi now replied, that as Cyrus had already 
been a king, even though it was only in a childish game, 
still, as he had been called a king, the oracles had been 
fulfilled, and Astyages need fear no further danger to his 
kingdom. Astyages therefore sent Cyrus to his parents 
in Persia, who received their long-lost son with over- 
whelming delight ; and the youthful Cyrus was no doubt 
astonished and rejoiced to find himself the son and grand- 
son of powerful kings, rather than a simple peasant boy, 
the son of a poor herdsman. 

Cyrus is described by the historians as being tall and 
handsome, and excelling in all youthful exploits. 

Xenophon describes the life of young Cyrus in the 
court of his father Cambyses, king of Persia. The sons 
of all the nobles and oflficers of the court were educated 
together in the royal palace. They w^ere not taught to 
read, as there were no books, but they had certain teachers 
who explained to them the principles of right and wrong, 
and described to them the various laws of the land, and 
the rules by which controversies should be settled. These 
were put to practical use in deciding the various cases 
which occurred among the boys themselves ; and judges 
were chosen from their number who should discuss and 
decide these questions. Right decisions were rewarded, 
and wrong ones punished. Cyrus himself was once pun- 
ished for a wrong decision. The case was this : — 

A larger boy took away the coat of a smaller boy, 





I'KKSIAN GUARnSMAN CARKYINt; 
l'A)\\ AXIJ (ilIVFK. 



PERSIAN SOLDIER W liH 
BATTLE-AXE. 




PERSIAN FOOT SOLDIERS. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 37 

whose coat was bigger than his own, and gave him his 
own smaller coat. The smaller boy appealed to Cyrus, 
who decided that each boy should keep the coat that 
fitted him. The teacher condemned his decision in these 
words, — 

"When you are called upon to consider a question of 
what fits best, then you should determine as you have 
done in this case ; but when you are appointed to decide 
whose each coat is, and to adjudge it to the proper owner, 
then you are to consider what constitutes right possession, 
and whether he who takes a thino- by force from one who 
is weaker than himself, should have it, or whether he who 
made it or purchased it, should be protected in his prop- 
ert}'. You have decided against law and in favor of vio- 
lence and wrong." 

The boys at this Persian court were taught many kinds 
of manly exercises. They were trained to wrestle and 
run, and were instructed in the use of all kinds of arms 
then known. P^ach one was furnished with a bow and 
arrows, a shield, a sword, or dagger, which was worn at 
the side in a scabbard, and two javelins, one of which 
they were to throw, and the other to keep in the hand for 
use in close combat with the wild beasts which they might 
eucounter in their hunting expeditions. These excur- 
sions were often long and fatiguing, which they took ])y 
turns with the king in the neighboring forests. 

They were subjected to long marches, to cold and hun- 
ger and storms, and sometimes dangerous conflicts. 
These experiences were considered necessarj' to fit them 
to become good soldiers in the future. 

Wiien Cyrus was about twelve years of age, he was 
invited by his grandfather Astyages to make him a visit 
in Media. When Cyrus arrived in Media with his mother 



38 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

Mauclane, he was surprised at the magnificeuce and pomp 
of the royal court ; as the mauuers and habits of the Per- 
sians were very simple, aud as he had been sent to Per- 
sia as soon as his royal rank had been discovered, he had 
not before had an opportunity of seeing the splendor of 
his grandfather's court. 

In his first interview with Astyages, Cyrus displayed 
his great tact and natural courtesy. When he came into 
the presence of his grandfather, who wore a purple robe 
richly embroidered with gold and covered with precious 
stones, and bracelets upon his arms, and a long, flowing- 
wig, while his face was painted and powdered, Cyrus 
exclaimed, — 

" Why, mother, what a handsome man my grandfather 
is ! " 

C3'rus was dazzled by the great display around him, for 
in the Persian court, Cambyses his father, and all his 
nobles, were clothed with great simplicity. Mandane 
then said to Cyrus, — 

"Which one do you think the handsomer man, 3^our 
father or your grandfather? " 

It was a very unwise question to ask a child, but Cyrus 
was equal to the emergency, and replied with great tact 
and politeness, — 

" My father is the handsomest man in Persia, but my 
grandfather is the handsomest of all the Medes." 

Astyages was much pleased with the aptness of this 
reply, and Cyrus became a great favorite with his grand- 
father, who lavished upon him costly garments, rich feasts, 
rare jewels, and the attentions of a retinue of servants. 
But after the first novelty had passed away, Cyrus pre-4| 
ferred his more simple raiment and plainer food. 

At one time, Astyages invited Cyrus and his mother 




PERSIAN KING SEATED ON HIS TH 



RONE. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 39 

to one of his grand feasts in his palace, and ordered the 
rarest viands to be served for Cyras in the most elegant 
and costly dishes. Instead of being flattered, Cyrns 
showed no particular pleasure or surprise, and when As- 
tyages asked him if he did not delight in such rich and 
delicate food, and if the feast before him was not much 
finer than any he had seen in Persia, Cyrus replied, — 

" We manage much better in Persia ; it is very trouble- 
some to eat a little of so many things." 

" How do 3'OU manage in Persia? " asked Astyages. 

"When we are hungry, we eat plain meat and bread, 
and so we get health and strength and have very little 
trouble," answered Cyrus. 

Ast3'ages then told Cyrus that he might continue his 
plain fare in Media, if he thought it was better for his 
health. Cyrus then asked his grandfather if he would 
give him all the costly dishes before him to do as he 
wished with them. To this Astyages consented, and 
Cyrus, calling up one of the attendants after another, 
presented to them as gifts the various elegant dishes with 
their contents. To one he said, " I give you this because 
you serve the king faithfully" ; to another, " I make you 
this present because you are faithful to my mother " ; and to 
another, " Because you have taught me to tln-ow the jave- 
lin." Thus he went on until all the gifts had been disposed 
of. Now the king had one servant, whom he honored 
above all others, who held the office of cup-bearer. 

In those daj'S this was an important trust, for those 
despotic monarchs possessed so many enemies that they 
were in constant danoer of assassination or of beincr 
poisoned. The king's cup-bearer must superintend the 
food of his master, and taste all wines himself before 
offering them to the king. 



40 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

Great dexterity and grace were necessary to perform 
the latter service acceptably, as the king's cup must not 
be placed to the lips of his cup-bearer, but a small por- 
tion must be poured into the palm of his hand, and lifted 
gracefully to his mouth. 

Astva2:es' cup-bearer was a Sacian ; he was an officer 
of high rank, tall and handsome, and magnificently 
dressed. In distributhig his gifts, Cyrus had neglected 
this officer, and when Astyages asked him his reason, 
C3TUS replied that he did not like the Sacian. Astyages 
inquired the cause of this dislike, and remarked, "Have 
you not observed how gracefully and elegantly he pours 
out the wine for me, and then hands me the cup?" 

Cyrus replied that he could pour out the wine and offer 
the cup as well as the Sacian, and requested his grand- 
father to allow him to try. To this the amused king con- 
sented, and Cyrus, taking a goblet of wine in his hand, 
retired from the room. He soon re-entered with the pom- 
pous and dignified bearing of the Sacian, and so mim- 
icked his manner of gravity and self-importance as to 
occasion much mirth amongst the assembled guests. 

Cyrus, having advanced to the king, presented him 
with the cup, neglecting not even one single motion of 
the usual ceremony, except tasting the wine himself. 
Mandane and the king laughed heartily, and the would- 
1)6 cup-bearer, becoming the child again, jumped into his 
grandfather's arms, exclaiming, " Now, Sacian, you are 
ruined ; I shall get my grandfather to appoint me in your 
place. I can hand the wine as well as you, and without 
tasting it myself at all." 

" But why did you not taste it? " asked his grandfather. 

" Because the wine was poisoned," replied Cyrus. 

"What makes you think it is poisoned?" inquired 
Astyages. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 41 

''Because," said Cyrus, "it was poisoned the other 
day when you made a feast for your friends on your 
birthday. It made you all crazy. The things that you 
do not allow us boys to do you did yourselves, for you 
were very rude and noisy ; you all bawled together so 
that nobody could hear or understand what any other 
person said. Presently you went to singing in a very 
ridiculous manner, and when a singer ended his song, you 
applauded him, and declared that he had sung admirably, 
though nobody had paid attention. You went to telling 
stories too, each one of his own accord, without succeed"^ 
ing in making anybody listen to him. Finally, you got 
up and began to dance, but it was out of all rule and 
measure ; you could not even stand erect and steadily. 
Then you all seemed to forget who and what you were ; 
the guests paid no regard to you as their king, but treated 
you in a very familiar and disrespectful manner, and you 
treated them in the same way ; so I thought that the wine 
that produced these effects must be poisoned." 

"But have not you ever seen such things before?" 
asked Astyages. " Does not your father ever drink wine 
until it makes him merry ? " 

" No," replied Cyrus, " indeed, he does not ; he drinks 
only when he is thirsty, and then only enough for his 
thirst, and so he is not harmed." hJ then added in a 
' ontemptuous tone, '^ He has no Sacian cup-bearer, you 
may depend, about him." 

"But why do you dislike this Sacian so much, mv 
son?" asked Mandane. 

" Why, every time that I want to come and see my 
grandfather," replied Cyrus, "he always stops me, and 
will not let me come in. I wish, grandfather, vou would 
let me have the rule of him for just three days." 



42 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

•' What would yon do? " asked Astyages. 
"I would treat him as he treats me now," answered 
Cyrus. ^' I would stand at the door, as he does when I 
want to come in, and wlien he was commg for his dinner, 
I would stop him and say, ' You cannot come in now ; he 
is busy.' " Cyrus repeated these words in the tones and 
with the graye manner of the Sacian. 

"Then," continued Cyrus, "when he was coming to 
get his supper, I would say, ^ You must not come in now ; 
he is bathing, or he is going to sleep ; you must come 
some other time, for he cannot be disturbed.' Thus I 
would torment him all the time, as he now torments me 
in keeping me from yon when I want to see you." 

When the time arrived for Mandane to return to Persia, 
Astyages was Tcry desirous to haye Cyrus remain with 
hinu Mandane gave her consent if Cyrus should wish to 
do so. Astyages told Cyrus that if he would stay, the 
Sacian should torment him no more, but that he should 
be allowed to come into his presence whenever he wished 
to do so, and, moreover, he should have the use of all his 
grandfather's horses. He should also have boys of his 
own age for companions, and they would be allowed to 
hunt the animals in the park. They could pursue them 
on horseback and shoot them with bows and arrows, or 
throw the javelins at their prey. This pleasure of riding 
and hunting was a rare one to Cyrus, for the Persians had 
few horses, and there were no bodies of cavalry in their 
armies. Cyrus represented to his mother the great ad- 
vantage it would be to him to be a skilful horseman, as 
that would give him a superiority over all the Persian 
youths. Mandane was somewhat anxious lest the luxu- 
rious habits and haughty manners of his grandfather 
should prove a bad example for Cyrus, but he assured 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 43 

her that she need have no fears, as his grandfather re- 
quired all to be submissive to himself, and allowed impe- 
riousness in no one but the king. So it was decided that 
Cyrus should remain in Media, and Mandane departed 
for Persia. 

Cyrus now applied himself with great diligence to 
acquire all the various accomplishments and arts then 
most highly prized, such as leaping, vaulting, racing, 
riding, throwing the javelin, and drawing the bow. In 
the friendly contests among the boys, Cyrus would cour- 
teously challenge those superior to himself in these exer- 
cises, thus giving them the pleasure of winning the prize, 
and l)enefiting himself by thus having the greater stimu- 
lus of contesting with attainments higher than his own. 
He accordingly made rapid progress, and speedily learned 
to equal and then surpass his companions without occa- 
sioning any envy or jealousy. 

It was their favorite anuisement to hunt the deer in his 
grandfather's park ; but at last, so vigorous had been their 
onslaught, that the animals were wellnigh exhausted, and 
Astyages went to great trouble to secure further supplies. 
Cyrus then requested that they be allowed to hunt in the 
forests, and hunt the wild beasts with the men. As Cyrus 
had now grown up into a tall, robust young man, able to 
sustain the fatigues of the hunt, his grandfather con- 
sented that Cyrus should go out with his son Cyaxares. 
The party set out in high spirits. There were certain 
attendants appointed to keep particular guard over Cyrus, 
and prevent him from rushing rashly into danger. His 
attendants told him that the dangerous animals were 
bears, lions, tigers, boars, and leopards ; and as they 
often attacked man, he must avoid them; but that he 
could hunt the stags, goats, and wild sheep as much as he 



44 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

pleased. They also told liim of the dangers in riding 
over a rough country where the broken ground and steep, 
rocky precipices made riding difficult, and hunters driving 
impetuousl}' over such a country were often thrown from 
their horses, or fell with them into the chasms and were 
killed. Cyrus promised to remember their warning ; but 
no sooner had he entered into the excitement of the chase 
than he forgot all their counsels, and riding furiouslj^ 
after a stag, his horse came to a chasm which he was 
obliged to leap. But the distance was too great, and the 
horse fell upon his knees as he reached the farther side, 
and for a moment before he recovered his footing Cyrus 
was in imminent danger of being precipitated to the 
bottom of the deep precipice. But Cyrus was fear- 
less ; and as soon as his horse had regained his feet 
and cleared the chasm, he pressed on after the stag, over- 
took him, and killed him with his javelin. As soon as his 
frightened attendants came up to him, they reproved him 
for his [reckless daring, and the}' threatened to report to 
his grandfather. Just at the instant he heard a new 
halloo, as fresh game had been started, and forgetting 
all his resolutions, Cyrus sprang upon his horse with a 
loud shout and followed the chase. The game now 
started was a dangerous wild boar, and Cyrus instead of 
shunning the peril, as he should have done in obedience 
to his grandfather's orders, dashed after the boar, and 
aimed so true a thrust with his javelin against the beast 
as to transfix him in the forehead. The boar fell dying 
upon the ground, and Cyrus waited for the party to arrive, 
with pride and triumph. When his uncle Cyaxares came 
near, he reproved Cyrus for running such risks, and said 
that if his grandfather knew what he had done, he would 
punish him. " Let him punish me," said Cyrus, "if he 



CTRU8 THE GREAT. 45 

wishes after I have shown him the stag and the boar 
and you may punish me too if you will only let me show 
him the animals I have killed." Cyaxares consented, and 
ordered the bodies of the beasts and the bloody javelins 
to be carried home. Cyrus presented them to his grand- 
father, who thanked him for the presents, but said he had 
no such need of game as to require his grandson to thus 
expose himself to danger. "Well, grandfather," said 
Cyrus, " if you don't wish the meat yourself, will you let 
me give it to my friends." Astyages agreed to this, and 
Cyrus divided his booty amongst all his young compan- 
ions who had hunted with him in the park. The bovs 
took their several portions home, giving glowing accounts 
of the skilful exploits of the giver. Thus was Cyrus 
thus early ambitious of spreading his own fame. 

When Cyrus was about sixteen years of age he went 
with his uncle Cyaxares on an excursion for plunder into 
some neighboring provinces. Neither the kings of those 
times nor their historians seem to have considered such 
expeditions as unjust or wrong, but rather as a more 
noble enterprise than even their favorite hunting. In this 
expedition Cyrus so distinguished himself by his exploits, 
that his father, hearing the reports thereof, concluded 
that if his son was beginning to take part as a soldier in 
military campaigns, it was time to recall him to his own 
country. He therefore sent for Cyrus to return home. 

There was great sadness in the Median court when 
Cyrus departed, for he had become a special favorite 
with king and people. 

The succeeding events of Cyrus' life take us more out 
of the field of romance and are more strictly confined to 
the facts of history. Cyrus on his return to Persia grew 
rapidly in strength and stature, and soon became distin- 



46 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

guished for his raauly beauty, his personal grace, and 
winning manners, as well as excelling all others in the 
martial accomplishments he had acquired in Media. He 
gained great ascendancy over the minds of others, and as 
he advanced to manhood his thoughts turned from ath- 
letic sports and hunting to plans of war and ambitions for 
more extended dominions. 

Meanwhile, Harpagus, who had always meditated re- 
venge upon Astyages for the horrible death of his son, 
though at the time he had been too wary to express 
resentment, was constantly watching every opportunity to 
work evil against the king. Fifteen years had now 
passed since the terrible deed was committed. He re- 
mained all this time in the court of Astyages, where he 
outwardly demeaned himself as the friend and zealous 
subject of the king, but meanwhile he plotted revenge. 

He kept up a constant communication with Cyrus, and 
at last went so far as to try to induce him to collect an 
army and march into Media against Astyages. The plau- 
sible motives which he suggested made it appear to Cyrus 
as though he would only be endeavoring to free his own 
Persia from ignoble bondage, as Persia was a Median 
dependency. Meanwhile, Harpagus sympathized with all 
the disaffected Medians, whose numbers rapidly increased, 
as the tyranny of Astyages made numerous enemies. 

At length the time came when Harpagus thought the 
right moment had arrived for a revolt. Cyrus had now 
determined to attempt the enterprise. Ast^^ages had been 
guilty of some unusual acts of oppression, by which he 
had produced great dissatisfaction among his people. 
Harpagus found the principal men around him willing to 
enter into the conspiracy, so he desired that Cyrus should 
come into Media with as large a force as he could raise, 



CYUU8 THE GREAT. 47 

and head the insurrection against the government of 

Ast^^ages. 

Harpagus did not dare to trust this message to any 
messenger, and so he took this novel way of communi- 
cating with Cyrus. He wrote a letter to Cyrus, and then 
taking a dead hare he opened tlie body and concealed the 
letter within, and then neatly sewed up the skin again so 
that no signs remained of the incision. He then delivered 
the hare to some trusty servants, who should also carry 
liunting weapons, as though about to go upon some hunt- 
ing expedition. He also commanded that they should 
give the hare to Cyrus himself, and that he should open it 
alone. The plan was successful; the hare reached the 
hands of Cyrus in safety, and opening it, he read a letter 

which was in substance as follows : 

" It is plain, Cyrus, that you are a favorite of Heaven, 
and that you are destined to a great and glorious career.' 
You could not otherwise have escaped, in so miraculous a 
manner, the snares set for you in your infancy. Astyages 
meditated your death, and he took such measures to effect 
it as would seem to have made your destruction sure. 
You were saved by the special interposition of Heaven. 
You are aware by what extraordinary incidents you were 
preserved and discovered, and what great and' unusual 
prosperity has since attended you. You know, too, what 
cruel punishments Astyages inflicted upon me for my 
humanity in saving you. The time has now come for 
retribution. From this time the authoritv and the domin- 
ions of Astyages may be yours. Persuade the Persians 
to revolt. Put yourself at the head of an army and 
march into Media. I shall probably myself be appointed 
to command the army sent out to oppose you. If so, we 
will join our forces when we meet, and I will enter vour 



48 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

service. I have conferred with the leading nobles in 
Media, and they are all ready to espouse your cause. 
You may rely upon finding everything thus prepared for 
you here. Come, therefore, without delay." 

Cyrus determined to comply with the proposal of Har- 
pagus. He therefore resorted to deceit, or, as he called 
it, stratagem. Thus war upholds and justifies falseliood 
and treachery under the name of stratagem. Cyrus had 
a letter prepared in the form of a commission from As- 
tyages, appointing him commander of a body of Persian 
forces to be raised in the service of the king. He then 
read this false letter at a public assembly, and called 
upon all the Persian warriors to join him. 

Cyrus did not at first make known to them his designs, 
but commanded them all to assemble on a certain day at 
a place named, and each one was to provide himself with 
an axe. When they were thus mustered, he marched 
them into the forest, and employed them all day in felling- 
trees. He gave them, moreover, only the coarsest food. 
When the day was over, he ordered them all to assemble 
again on the morrow. When they came the next day, 
instead of hard work and poor food, most sumptuous 
feasts had been provided for them, and they spent the 
day in merriment and revelry. 

In the evening Cyrus called them all together and re- 
vealed to them his plans, and said to them that if they 
would follow him, they should live in ease and plenty ; 
otherwise, if they should continue as they were, they 
would spend their lives in toil and privation ; and he 
reminded them of the two days just spent, and asked 
them which they preferred to live. The soldiers received 
liis proposals with joy, and eagerly promised to follow 
him into Media. When everything was ready, Cyrus led 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 49 

his army into Media. In the meantime Astj^ages, hear- 
ing of his iusiirrection, had collected a large force, and as 
had been anticipated, placed it under the command of 
Harpagus. When the battle was joined, the honest part 
of the Median army fought valiantly at first ; but dis- 
covering that they were being deserted by their comrades, 
they fled in confusion. Cyrus, thus reinforced by the 
deserting Medians with Harpagus at their head, now 
found himself the leader of a large force, and advanced 
toward the capital. When Astyages heard of the treachery 
of Harpagus and the desertion of his army, he was fren- 
zied with rage. The long-dreaded prediction of his 
dream seemed about to be fulfilled, and the Magi who 
had assured him that he was safe, as Cyrus had been a 
king when a boy, had proved themselves false. 

He directed them all to be seized and crucified. He 
then ordered every man capable of bearing arms, into the 
ranks, and putting himself at the head of this large force, 
he marched against Cyrus. But he was defeated, and he 
himself was taken prisoner. Harpagus was present when 
he was taken, and he exulted in triumph over his down- 
fall. Harpagus asked him what he thought now of the 
supper in which he had compelled a father to feed upon 
the flesh of his own child. Astyages asked Harpagus if 
he thought the success of Cyrus was owing to what he 
had done. Harpagus replied that it was, and revealed to 
him how he had schemed for his destruction, and the 
preparation he had made in aid of Cyrus, so that Astyages 
might see that his downfall had been eflfected by Harpagus 
himself, in terrible retribution for the shocking crime he 
had committed so many years before. 

The result of this battle was the complete overthrow of 
the power and kingdom of Astyages, and the establish- 



50 GtKUS THE GREAT. 

ment of Cyrus on the throne of the united kingdoms of 
Media and Persia. 

C^^-us treated his grandfather with kindness, though he 
kept him in a sort of imprisonment. Tiie people rejoiced 
in his downfall, and were well pleased with the milder 
and more equitable government of Cyrus. Astyages met 
Ills death years after, in a strange manner. Cyrus sent 
for him to come into Persia, where he was then himself 
residing. The officer who had Astyages in charge, led 
him into a desolate wilderness, where he perished from 
hunger and exposure. Cyrus punished the officer for this 
crime, though it was supposed by some that it was done 
by the secret order of Cyrus, in retribution, perhaps, for 
the evil intentions of Astyages toward himself in his 
infancy, which, if they had been obeyed, would have 
resulted in his own death from the same cause. 

The character and nobleness of Cyrus, as evinced by 
numerous generous deeds throughout his life, would, 
however, seem to refute such a supposition. Harpagus 
continued in the service of Cyrus, and became one of his 
most celebrated generals. 

vSuch is one of the stories of the accession of Cyrus to 
the thrones of Media and Persia. Another account gives 
a different version of it, and states that Astyages died 
while king of Media, and was succeeded by his sou 
Cyaxares, brother to Cyrus' mother Mandane, or Man- 
dana, as her name is given by some historians. The 
years of the reign of Cyrus are computed differently. 
Some make his reign thirty years, beginning from his first 
setting out from Persia at the head of an army to succor 
his uncle Cyaxares, who was in war with the Babylonians. 
Others make the duration of it to be but seven years, 
because they date only from the time when, by the death 



Ornus THE GREAT. 51 

of Cambyses and Cyaxares, Cyrus became sole mouarch 
of the entire empire of both Media and Persia. But as 
Cyrus seems to have been the leader in both the Median 
and Persian empires long before the death of these kino-g, 
he probably ruled them both in partnership with them; 
and notwithstanding Cyrus conquered and acquired Baby- 
lon by his own valor, he complacently allowed his uncle 
Cyaxares, whose forces had been eugaged with his own, 
to hold the first rank. This Cyaxares is called in the 
Bible Darius the Mede ; and it was under his reign in 
Babylon, which only lasted two years, that Daniel the 
prophet had several revelations. But as our interest is 
more particularly in the life and conquests of Cyrhs him- 
self, rather than those of Cyaxares and Cambyses, and as 
the vast power and dominion of both Media and Persia 
seemed to have been owing to the valor and executive 
ability of Cyrus alone, our story will confine itself to the 
achievements of Cyrus the Great, without further mention 
of Cambyses or Cyaxares. 

We now come to the history of Cyrus and Croesus, 
and before we recount the conquest of the kingdom of 
Lydia, it will make it more interesting, perhaps, to give a 
slight sketch of Croesus, king of Lydia, and also to men- 
tion the oracles which played such an important part in 
the history of this king. The country of Lydia, over 
which this famous king ruled, was in the western part of 
Asia Minor bordering on the J^gean Sea. Croesus, king 
of Lydia, acquired the enormous riches for which he was 
so famous, from the golden sands of the river Pactolus, 
which flowed through his kingdom. The river brought 
down the gold particles from the mountains above, and 
the slaves of Croesus washed the sands, thus separating 
the metal, which was obtained in such vast quantities that 



52 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

this king's name has become a proverb for fabulous 
wealth, in the old saying, " Rich as Cnesus." 

The people of those da^^s, however, had a very different 
story of the origin of the gold in the river Pactolus. 
Their legend was that ages before, a certain king named 
Midas had rendered some service to a god, who there- 
upon promised to grant him any favor he should ask. 
Midas prayed that the power might l)e granted him of 
turning everything he touched into gold. This power 
was bestowed by the god, and after Midas had turned 
many objects into gold, he began to find his gift very 
inconvenient, and was in danger of starving to death in 
the midst of all his wealth. For no sooner had he 
touched any food than it straightway became gold. 
Midas was then as anxious to get rid of his dangerous 
gift as he had been to secure it. 

He implored the god to take back the gift. 

The god told him to go and bathe in the river Pactolus, 
and he should be restored to his former state. 

Midas did so, and was saved, but in the operation a 
great portion of the sands of the river were transformed 
to gold. 

Croesus was at one time visited by a famous Grecian 
lawgiver, named Solon. Croesus received Solon with 
great distinction, and showed him all his treasures. 

One day the king asked Solon, who of all the persons 
he had ever met, he considered to be the happiest man. 

Of course Croesus imagined that the sage would name 
himself, the king, as the happiest mortal. But Solon gave 
him the name of Tellus, a quiet Athenian citizen. 

Croesus asked why he should place such a man before, 
a monarch occupying such a throne as his own. 

Solon replied, — 



1 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 53 

"You are now at the height of your power, but I can- 
not decide whether you are a fortunate and happy man, 
until I know your end." 

Crcesus had two sons. One was deaf and dumb, the 
other was a young man of much promise ; but he was 
killed while hunting. 

As soon as C3'rus had become established on his throne 
as king of the Medes and Persians, his power began to 
extend westward toward the empire of Croesus, king of 
Lydia. 

Croesus was roused from the dejection into which he 
had been plunged by the death of his sou, by the danger 
which now threatened his kingdom. In his uncertainty 
regarding the future, he determined to consult the oracles. 
The three most important of these oracles were situated, 
one at Delphi, one at Dodona, and the third at the Oasis 
of Jupiter Ammon. 

Delphi was a small town built on the southern side of 
Mount Parnassus. This mount was a famous place. 
From a deep cavern in the rocks there issued a stream of 
gaseous vapor, which was said to inspire all persons in- 
haling it with a spirit of divination and poetry. A tem- 
ple was built upon this mountain, in which a priestess 
resided, and she gave responses to all who came to con- 
sult the oracle. When she gave her answers, she sat 
upon a three-legged stool, which was afterwards caMed 
the sacred tripod. This oracle became so renowned t^iat 
many monarchs came great distances to consult it ; and 
they made very costly presents to the shrine. The deity 
who was supposed to dictate the predictions was Apollo. 
Croesus sent messengers to all of the various oracles to 
ask what should be the result of his contest with Cyrus. 
The replies were all unsatisfactory, except the Delphic 



54 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

oracle. Croesus now decided that this was the oracle 
upon w^liieh he must rely, and immediately made prepara- 
tions to send most magnificent and costly presents to the 
Delphic shrine. Some of the treasures were to be depos- 
ited in the temple, and some were to be offered as a burnt 
sacrifice to the god. 

After the ceremonies were completed, everything that 
had been used in the services, including gold and silver 
vessels, richly embroidered garments, and numerous other 
costly articles, were gathered into one vast funeral pile 
and burnt. So much gold had been employed in making 
these things, that it melted in the fire and ran into plates 
of great size. These were then collected and formed into 
an image of a lion, which was placed in the temple. 
Croesus also presented the temple with a silver cistern, 
or tank, large enough to hold three thousand gallons of 
wine. There was one strange piece of statuarj' which he 
sent to this shrine, which we must not omit to mention. 
It was a statue of gold of a woman-servant in the house- 
hold of Croesus. It was called The Breadraaker. Its 
origin was this : — 

When Croesus was a child, his mother died, and his 
father married again. His stepmother desired to have 
one of her children succeed to the throne instead of Croe- 
sus. So she gave some poison to the woman who was 
accustomed to make the bread for the famil}-, telling her to 
put it in the portion intended for Cra?sus. This servant, 
however, instead of minding the wicked queen, revealed 
the plot to Croesus, and put the poison in the bread of the 
queen's own children. In gratitude for his preservation 
by this slave, Croesus ordered a statue of gold to be made 
in her honor, when he came to the throne ; and this he 
sent to the temple at Delphi. After Croesus had pre- 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 55 

sented all these magnificent gifts to the shrine, he con- 
sulted the oracle. The answer was as follows : — 

'' If Croesus crosses the Halys and prosecutes a war 
with Persia, a mighty empire will be overthrown. It will 
be best for him to form an alliance with the most power- 
ful states of Greece." 

Croesus was much pleased with this answer, and then 
asked furthermore, whether his power would ever dechne. 

The oracle replied, — 

'•Whenever a mule shall mount upon the Median 
throne, then, and not till then, shall great Cra^sus fear 
to lose his own." 

These replies strengthened the belief of Croesus that 
he should be victorious ; but as the sequel shows, we will 
learn how vague and indefinite were the answers of the 
oracles, and so given that they could correspond with the 
event, whatever might be the result. 

Croesus now sent ambassadors to Sparta to seek their 
aid, and meanwhile went on making great preparations 
for his campaign. When all things were ready, the army 
commenced its march eastward until it reached the river 
Halys. 

The army encamped upon its banks until some plan 
could be formed for crossing the river. Croesus had with 
his army a very celebrated engineer named Thales. This 
engineer succeeded in getting the army of Croesus over 
the river by ordering a large force of laborers to cut a 
new channel for the river behind the army, into which the 
water flowed, and Croesus and his force passed on. Cyrus 
had heard of his approach, and soon the armies were face 
to face. 

Cyrus had been conquering all the nations in his path, 
as he went forward to meet Croesus, and thus had been 



56 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

reinforced by all of the neighboring people, except the 
Babylonians, who were allied with Croesus against him. 
A great battle was fought at Pteria, which continued all 
day, and at its close the combatants separated without 
either of them having gained much advantage. 

Croesus thinking that this battle was enough for the 
present, and supposing that Cyrus would now go home, 
haviuo- found that he could not overcome him, determined 
to return to his own city Sardis, and there prepare for a 
more vigorous campaign in the spring. 

Cyrus quietly remained in his position until Croesus had 
time to return to Sardis. Whereupon, he followed with 
his entire army. 

Croesus was now thoroughly alarmed, and collecting all 
the forces he could command, he marched forth to a great 
plain just without the city, to meet Cyrus. 

The Lydian army was superior to that of C3'rus in 
cavalry, and upon this plain they would have a much 
greater advantage. To avoid this, Cyrus ordered all his 
large train of camels, which had been emploj^ed as beasts 
of burden, to be drawn up in line in front of his army, 
each one having a soldier upon his back, armed with a 
spear. 

It is said that horses cannot endure the sight or smell 
of a camel ; and when the two armies met, the cavahy of 
Croesus, riding furiously to the attack, were confronted 
by the line of huge, awkward camels, with their soldier 
riders. The horses were so frightened by the spectacle, 
that they turned and fled in dismay, trampling down their 
own forces, and causing complete confusion in the Lydian 
army. The army of Croesus was totally defeated, and 
they fled into the city of Sardis and entrenched themselves 
there. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 57 

Cyrus now besieged the city for fourteen days, endeav- 
oring to find some place to scale the walls which sur- 
rounded it. One part of the wall passed over rocky 
precipices which were considered impassable. At length 
one of the soldiers of Cyrus, named Hyraeades, observed 
one of the sentinels, who was stationed on the wall over- 
looking the precipice, leave his post, and come partwa}^ 
down the rocks to get his helmet, which had dropped 
down. Hyrjeades reported this incident to Cyrus, and so 
an attempt was made to scale the walls at that point. It 
was successful, and thus the city was taken. It is re- 
ported that in the confusion and noise of storming the 
city the life of Croesus was saved by the miraculous 
speaking of his deaf-and-dumb son. Cj^rus had com- 
manded his soldiers not to kill Croesus, but that they 
should take him alive, and he should then be brought to 
him. As Croesus was escaping with his son a party of 
Persian soldiers took him prisoner, and were about to kill 
him, not knowing who he was, when the dumb boy cried 
out, — 

" It is Croesus ; do not kill him ! " 

Cyrus had not ordered Croesus to be spared from any 
motives of kindness ; but that he himself might deter- 
mine his fate. 

He commanded Croesus to be put in chains, and a huge 
funeral pile to be built in a public square, and Croesus 
and fourteen of the young Lydian nobles were placed 
upon the pile. 

Just as the torch was applied, Croesus cried out in a 
tone of anguish and despair, — 

"Oh, Solon! Solon! Solon!" 

The officers who had charge of the execution asked 
him what he meant, and Cyrus, also hearing him, and 



58 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

being desiious of receiving an explanation of his myste- 
rious words, commanded the fires to lie put out, and 
ordered Croesus to be unbound and to be brought to hiui. 
Cyrus now treated Croesus with much kincbiess. 

CrcBSus was very much incensed against tlie oracle at 
Delphi for having deceived him by false predictions ; but 
the priests of the oracle replied that the destruction of 
the Lj^dian dynasty had long been decreed by fate on 
account of the guilt of Gyges, the founder of the line, 
who had murdered the rightful monarch, and usurped the 
crown. The oracles had foretold that a mighty em[)ire 
would be overthrown, and Croesus had wrongly imagined 
that it referred to the destruction of the kingdom of 
Cyrus. As to the other prediction made by the oracle, 
that when he should find a mule upon the throne of 
Media, he would lose his own, this had been fulfilled, as 
Cyrus, who was descended from the Persians on his 
father's side, and from the Medians on his mother's, had 
thus become a hybrid sovereign, represented by the mule. 

In his advance towards the dominions of Croesus in 
Asia Minor, Cyrus had passed to the northward of the 
great and celebrated city of Babylon. He had now con- 
quered all the nations from the ^gean Sea to the river 
Euphrates. He then subdued Syria and Arabia. After 
this he entered into Assyria and advanced towards Baby- 
lon, tlie only large cit}^ of the East 3^et unsubdued. 

The taking of Babylon is one of the greatest events in 
ancient history, and the principal circumstances with 
which it was attended were foretold in the Bible many 
vears before it happened. Babylon, at this time, was the 
most magnificent city in the world. It was situated in 
a large plain, and was surrounded by walls which were 
eighty-seven feet thick, three hundred and fifty feet high, 




PERSIAN SUBJECTS BRINGING TRIBUTI 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 59 

and sixty miles in circumference. These walls were in 
the form of a square, each side of which was fifteen miles 
long. The}^ were built of large bricks cemented together 
with bitumen, which bound bricks so firmly together that 
the mortar soon became harder than the bricks them- 
selves. This wall was surrounded by a deep, wide trench 
filled with water. The great wall of Babylon contained 
200,000,000 yards of solid masonry, or nearly twice the 
cul)ic contents of the famous wall of China. Each of the 
bricks was stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. 
The wall was so wide that four chariots could move 
abreast upon its summit. Two hundred and fifty towers, 
each ten feet higher than the walls, rose above the para- 
pet. One hundred gates of brass opened to as many 
streets. Each of the fifty streets was fifteen miles long, 
and one hundred and forty feet broad, crossing each 
other at right angles ; these avenues divided the city into 
six hundred and seventy-six squares, each being two and 
a half miles in circuit. The buildings were erected 
around these squares with an open court in the centre, 
containino- beautiful ourdens and fountains. The river 
Euphrates flowed through the city, and was spanned by 
a bridge, five hundred feet long and thirty feet wide. 
Above the bridge rose an obelisk one hundred and 
twenty -five feet high. As the melting of the snows upon 
the mountains of Armenia caused the river Euphrates to 
overflow its banks in the months of June, July, and 
August, two artificial canals were cut, some distance 
above the city, which turned the course of these waters 
into the Tigris before they reached Babylon. To keep 
the river within its channel, they raised immense artifi- 
cial banks on both sides, built with bricks cemented with 
bitumen. In making these works it was necessary to 



60 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

turn the course of the river another way. For this pur- 
pose a prodigious artificial lake was dug, forty miles 
square, one hundred and sixty in circumference, and 
thirty-five feet deep. 

Into this lake the whole river was turned by an artificial 
canal, cut from the west side of it, until the entire work 
was finished, when the river was allowed to flow into its 
former channel. This lake was kept, however, as a reser- 
voir, as a means of irrigating the surrounding fields. 

Along the banks of the river were the famous Hanging 
Gardens, where the man}" terraces bloomed with brilliant 
flowers, and were shaded by groves of trees, and cooled 
by fountains of sparkling water. These beautiful gar- 
dens, which were considered one of the Seven Wonders 
of the World, were constructed b}' Nebuchadnezzar to 
please his wife Amytis, whose native land was Media, as 
she was the daughter of Astyages. 

Surrounded by a triple wall, and guarded by gates of 
brass, rose the magnificent royal palace, whose walls were 
adorned by pictures of the chase, and martial and festive 
processions, and whose apartments were furnished with 
the rich carpets of Persia, the costly fabrics of Damascus, 
and the jewels of Bokhara. 

Rising above all the other structures was the lofty 
Tower of Belus, or Babel. The tower was six hundred 
feet high, and was crowned with a statue of Belus, fort}' 
feet high, made of pure gold, which shone resplendent in 
the sunlight, or gleamed with matchless beaut}' in the 
soft moonlight. It is said that this tower far exceeded 
the greatest pyramid of Egypt in height. The ascent to 
the top was by stairs round the outside of it ; and as the 
tower proper was composed of eight stories, each de- 
creasing gradually in size, tlie entire tower formed a 




CHART OF THE COUNTRY AROUND BABYLON. 



CYRUS THE GEE AT. 61 

pyramid. In the different stories were many rooms, 
which were richly adorned with tables, censers, cnps, and 
other sacred vessels of massive gold. Diodorns, one of 
the ancient historians, estimates the value of the riches 
contained in this temi)le to amount to $93,240,000. 
This temple stood in the time of Xerxes, but on his re- 
turn from his Grecian expedition, he entirely destroyed 
it, having plundered it of all its immense treasures. 
Alexander the Great purposed to rebuild it, and em- 
ployed ten thousand men to remove the rubbish which 
had accumulated around it, but after they had labored 
two months, Alexander died, and that put an end to the 
undertaking. 

Belshazzar gave a great feast in his palace to all his 
chief officers and nobles, even though Cyrus tlie Great 
was then besieging Babylon. It was during this impious 
feast, after Belshazzar had commanded that the sacred 
vessels, which had been taken from the Temple of Jeho- 
vah in Jerusalem, should be desecrated by being used by 
his drunken guests as wine-goblets, that the marvellous 
writing appeared upon his palace wall, and the words 
" Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin " were traced in letters 
of fire by a mysterious hand. Belshazzar was aroused 
from his drunken carousal and filled with terror on 
account of the strange omen. None of his magicians 
could interpret its meaning. At last his mother. Queen 
Nitocris, remembered the old prophet Daniel, and his 
previous wonderful interpretations for Nebuchadnezzar. 
Daniel, being summoned, declared that it predicted the 
destruction of his kingdom, which should be divided, 
and given to the Medes and Persians. 

Swiftly, indeed, did the dread catastrophe overtake the 
wicked king. Cyrus had caused great ditches to be dug 



62 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

on both sides of the city, above and below, so that the 
water of the river Euphrates might run into thenio 
That ver}^ night he caused those great receptacles to be 
opened ; and while Belshazzar and his drunken army were 
carousing in mad revellings, the channel of the river was 
emptied, and the hostile forces marched into the dr^' 
channel in two bodies of troops ; one entering above the 
city, and one below. A guide who had promised to 
open all the gates to Cyrus left open the gates of brass 
which were made to shut up the descents from the quays 
to the river. 

Thus the army of Cyrus was enabled to penetrate into 
the very heart of the city without opposition. Arriving 
at the royal palace, the}' surprised the guards and killed 
them. Then rushing into the palace, and meeting the 
king, who had seized a sword, and stood in the midst of 
his frightened and helpless guests, the soldiers of Cyrus 
killed Belshazzar. 

Cyrus, having entered the city, put all to the sword 
who were found in the streets. He then commanded the 
citizens to bring him all their arms, and afterwards to 
shut themselves up in their houses. Early the next 
morning, the garrison which kept the citadel, learning 
that the city had been taken, and their king killed, sur- 
rendered themselves to Cyrus. Thus did this prince, 
ahnost without striking a blow, find himself in possession 
of the strongest place in the world. 

In the first year after Cyrus conquered Babylon, he 
published the famous edict permitting the Jews to return 
to Jerusalem. Cyrus at the same time restored to the 
Jews all the vessels of the temple of the Lord, which 
Nebuchadnezzar had brought from Jerusalem, and placed 
in the temple of his god Belus, or Baal. 




SUPPOSED I'LAX OF ANCIENT BABYLON. 



CYRUS THE GREAT, 63 

After this conquest, Cyrus established his residence in 
the midst of the countries within his vast dominions. He 
spent seven months of the year at Babylon in the winter 
season, because of the warmth of that climate ; three 
months at Susa in the spring ; and two months at Ecbat- 
ana, during the heat of summer. 

There is an interesting story, told b}' Xenophon, of a 
princess, named Panthea, in connection with the expedi- 
tion of C3'rus against the Assyrians. Among the pris- 
oners of war taken by his army was a very beautiful 
princess, Panthea, the wife of Abradates, king of Susi- 
ana. Her husband was an Assyrian general, though he 
himself was not captured at this time with his wife. 
Cyrus committed this princess to the care of one of his 
young nobles, named Araspes. This nobleman fell in 
love with Panthea, and ventured to express to her his 
admiration for her. She was offended ; and when Araspes 
continued his declarations of love, she complained to Cy- 
rus. Cyrus severely reproved his officer for proving 
unworthy of the trust reposed in him. Araspes, morti- 
fied and repentant, was overwhelmed with fear and re- 
morse. Cyrus, hearing of this, sent for Araspes, and 
instead of upbraiding him, sent him upon a trusty and 
difficult mission as a sp}- among the Assj^rians. The loss 
of so brave an officer, who was supposed to have gone 
over to the enemy, greatl}^ affected the army. Panthea, 
who imagined that she had been the cause of this loss to 
Cyrus, told him that she would supply the place of 
Araspes with an officer of equal merit. Accordingly, she 
sent for her husband Abradates. Upon his arrival, she 
told him of the kindness and consideration with which 
she had been treated by Cyrus, the generous conqueror. 

"And how," said Abradates, ''shall 1 be able to 
acknowledge so important a service ? " 



64 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

'*" Bv behaving towards him as he has done towards 
me," replied Panthea. 

Whereupon, Abradates immediately expressed his grat- 
itude to C3TUS, and offered to espouse his cause as his 
faithful all}'. Cyrus received him with a noble and 
courteous manner and accepted his offer. Abradates 
then fitted up for Cyrus one hundred chariots at his own 
expense, and provided horses to draw them, from his own 
troop. These armed chariots were a very expensive sort 
of force. The carriages were heavy and strong and were 
usually drawn by two horses. They had short, scythe-like 
blades of steel projecting from the axletrees on each 
side, by which the ranks of the enemy were mowed down 
when the chariots were driven among them. Each chariot 
could hold one or more warriors beside the driver of the 
horses. The warriors stood on the floor of the carriage, 
and fought with javelins and spears. Abradates made 
one chariot much larger than the rest for himself, as he 
intended to command this corps of chariots. 

His wife Panthea took much interest in these prepara- 
tions, and unknown to Abradates, she furnished from her 
own treasures a helmet, a corselet, and arm-pieces of 
' gold for her husband. She also provided breast-pieces 
and side-pieces for the horses. When the day arrived for 
Abradates to go into battle with his chariot corps, Panthea 
presented her munificent gifts to him, which were most 
royal. Besides the defences of gold, there were other 
articles for ornament. There was a purple robe, a violet 
crest for the helmet, waving plumes, and costly bracelets. 
Abradates was greatly astonished, and exclaimed with 
surprise and pleasure, — 

"And so to provide me with this splendid armor and 
dress, you have been depriving yourself of all your finest 
and most beautiful ornamenta ! '* 




15ABYLONIAN KING. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 65 



u 



No," lovingly replied Pantliea ; "you are yourself 
my finest ornament, if you appear in the eyes of others as 
you do in mine ; and I have not deprived myself of you." 

There were many spectators present to see Abradates 
mount in his gorgeous chariot and drive away ; but the 
attention of the beholders was centred upon the exquisite 
beauty of Panthea, as she stood by the side of his chariot 
to bid adieu to her husband. This was their last parting. 

As Panthea turned away from the royal train, her hus- 
band waved her a fond farewell. 

On the field of battle Abradates displayed heroic cour- 
age. His chariot was observed by Cyrus, in the thickest 
of the fight, rushing fearlessly into the places of the 
greatest danger. 

The victory was gained by Cyrus ; but Abradates was 
killed in his chariot ; and when Cyrus inquired about him, 
it was reported that Panthea was then attending to the 
interment of the body on the banks of a river which 
flowed near the field of battle. 

Cyrus immediatel}' went to the spot, where Panthea sat 
weeping over the remains of her beloved husband. Cyrus 
leaped from his horse, and knelt beside the corpse, 
exclaiming, — 

"Alas! thou brave and faithful soul, and art thou 
gone ? " 

Cyrus said what he could to console Panthea ; but she 
was unconsolable. He gave directions that everything 
should be furnished for her comfort. Panthea thanked 
him for his kindness. 

After Cyrus had left her, Panthea sent away all her 
servants but her waiting-maid, saying that she wished to 
be alone with the dead body of her husband. She then 
drew forth a small dagger, which she had kept concealed 



66 CYRUS THE GREAT. 

beneath her robe : and telling her maid to envelop her 
dead body in the same mantle with her husband, and to 
have them buried together in the same grave, she pierced 
her heart with the weapon before her affrighted servant 
could prevent the fatal wound. Abradates and Panthea 
were buried together in one grave, as the heart-broken 
wife had requested, over which Cyrus erected a lofty 
monument to their memory. 

Cyrus, finding himself master of all the East by the 
taking of Babylon, did not imitate the example of most 
other conquerors, who sully the glory of their victories by 
their cruelties and wicked lives. Cyrus is justly consid- 
ered one of the wisest conquerors and one of the most 
accomplished of the princes to be found in profane his- 
tory. He was possessed of all the qualities necessary to 
make a great man. Cicero observes, that during the 
entire time of the rule of Cyrus he was never heard to 
speak one rough or angry word. 

Cyrus, according to his belief, was very religious. He 
was^ to be sure, a pagan ; but he reverenced sacred 
things, and as his deliverance of the Jews showed, he 
acknowledged the power of Jehovah, even though we 
have no account of his complete conversion from idol- 
atry. But his devotion to what he held to be religion is 
an example for the worshippers of the one true God. 

Cyrus, having established himself in the midst of his 
wide kingdom, with his chief residence at Babylon, 
resolved to appear before the people in an august relig- 
ious ceremony, by marching in a grand cavalcade to the 
places consecrated to the gods, in order to offer sacrifices 
to them. He ordered the superior officers of the Persians 
and allies to attend him ; and he presented each one with 
a suit of clothes of the Median f-ashion. These were long 




PERSIAN CHARIOT. 




TOMB OF CYRUS. 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 



67 



garments, of various colors, of the finest and brightest 
dyes, richly embroidered with gold and silver. One of 
the historians gives this description of this gorgeous 
pageant. 

" When the time appointed for the ceremony was come, 
the whole company assembled at the king's palace by 
break of day. Four thousand of the guards, drawn up 
four deep, placed themselves in front of the palace, and 
two thousand on the two sides of it, ranged in the same 
order. All the cavalry were also drawn out, the Persians 
on the right, and that of the allies on the left. The 
chariots of war were ranged half on one side and half on 
the other. As soon as the palace gates were opened, a 
great numl.er of bulls of exquisite beauty were led out, 
by four and four. These were to be sacrificed to Jupiter 
and other gods, according to the ceremonies prescribed 
by the Magi. Next followed the horses that were to be 
sacrificed to the sun. Immediately after them a white 
chariot, crowned with flowers, the pole of which was gilt • 
this was to be offered to Jupiter. Then came a second 
chariot of the same color, and adorned in the same man- 
ner, to be offered to the sun. After these followed a 
third, the horses of which were caparisoned with scarlet 
housings. Behind came the men who carried the sacred 
fire in a large hearth. 

'' When all these were on the march, Cvrus himself made 
his api>€arance upon his car, with his upright tiara upon 
lus head, encircled with the royal diadem. His under- 
tunic was of purple mixed with white, which was a color 
peculiar to kings ; over his other garments he wore a 
large purple cloak. His hands were uncovered. A little 
below him sat the master of the horse, who was of a 
comely stature, but not so tall as Cyrus, for which reason 



gg CYBUS THE GREAT. 

the stature of the latter appeared still more advan- 

*'''rton as the people perceived the prince, they all 
fell prostrate before him and worshipped hin. ; whether 
it was that certain persons appointed on purpose, and 
placed at proper distances, led others ^^^^ ^^f^;^ 
or that the people were moved to do .t of then ow 
accord bein^ struck by the appearance of so much pomp 
and magnificence, and with so many awful circumstances 

of majesty and splendor. . 

"The Persians had never prostrated themselves in this 
.anner before Cyrus t>U on «,is oc~ Wh.r Cyrns^ 
chariot was come out of the palace, lue luu 
"nards began to march ; the other two thousand moved a 
the same time, and placed themselves on each side of the 

'^u S; eunuchs, or great officers of the king's household, 
to the number of three hundred, richly clad, with javelms 
i„ their hands and mounted upon stately horses, marched 
immediately after the chariot. After them were led two 
hundred horses of the king's stable, each of them having 
embroidered furniture and bits of gold. Next came the 
p".ian cavalry divided into four bodies, each consisting 
;f ten thousand men; then the Median horse and after 
those the cavalry of the allies. The chariots of war. four 
Ibreast, brought up the rear and closed *« Pr-— 
When thev came to the fields consecrated to *« g^^^' 
thev offered their sacrifices first to Jupiter and then to 
the'sun. To the honor of the first, bulls were burnt, and 
to the honor of the second, horses. They likewise sacri- 
ficed some victims to the earth, according to the appomt- 
ment of the Magi ; then to the demigods, the pations 
and protectors of Syria. In order to amuse he people 
after this grave and solemn ceremony, Cyrus thought fit 



CYRUS THE GREAT. 69 

that it should conclude with games and horse and 
chariot races. 

'•The place chosen for them was large and spacious. 
He ordered a certain portion of it to be marked out, and 
proposed prizes for the victors of each nation, which were 
to encounter separately and among themselves. He himself 
won the prize in the Persian horse-races, for nobody was 
so complete a horseman as he. The chariots ran but two 
at a time, one against another. Some days after, Cyrus, 
to celebrate the victory he had obtained in the horse- 
races, gave a great entertainment to all his chief officers, 
as well strangers as Medes and Persians. Thev had 
never yet seen anything of the kind so sumptuous and 
magnificent. At the conclusion of the feast he made 
every one a noble present, so that they all went home with 
hearts overflowing with joy, admiration, and gratitude ; 
and all-powerful as he was, master of all the East and so 
many kingdoms, he did not think it descending from his 
majesty to conduct the whole company to the door of his 
apartment. 

"Such were the manners and behavior of those ancient 
times, when men understood how to unite great simplicity 
with the highest degree of human grandeur." 

There are two accounts given of the death of Cyrus. 
Herodotus relates that Cyrus made war against the Scyth- 
ians, and after having attacked them, made a feint of 
retreating, leaving a great quantity of provisions and wine 
beliind him. The Scythians, supposing he had indeed 
departed, seized the booty and were soon thoroughly 
drunk from the effects of the wine. While they were 
still in a drunken slumber, they were surprised by Cyrus 
and completely routed. The son of Tomyris, queen of 
the Scythians, had commanded the vanquished army, and 
was taken prisoner. When he recovered from his drunken 



^Q CYRUS THE GREAT. 

fit and found himself iu captivity, with a disgrace hanging 
over his head wliich he could never hope to w.pe out, he 
killed himself in despair. His mother, Queen Tomyns, 
determining to avenge the death of her son, co ec ed a 
lar<.e force ; and meeting the Persians m a second battle 
t^iev were defeated, and more than two hundred thousand 
of "their number were killed, together with then- kmg 
Cvrus. Tomvris was so enraged against Cyrus that 
e;en his death did not suffice her vengeance ; but it is 
said that she ordered his head to be cut off and flung uito 
a vessel full of blood. This shocking account, however, 
is not given by Xenophou, who relates that when Cyrus 
perceived the time of his death to be near he ordered his 
children and officers of state to be assembled abon him. 
After thanking the gods for their favors to h.m, he de- 
clared his oldest son, Cambyses, to be his successor, and 
loft the other, whose name was Tauaoxares, several 
important governments. Having taken his leave of them 
all, he addressed these words to his sons : — 

" I could never imagine that the soul only lived while 
in a mortal body, and died when separated from it. But 
if I mistake, and nothing of me shall remain after death, 
at least fear the gods, who never die, who see ^1 tlnngs 
and whose power is infinite. Fear them, and let that feai 
prevent you from ever doing, or deliberating to do, any- 
thing contrarv to religion and justice. For my body, my 
sons, when life has forsaken it, enclose it neither in gold 
or silver, nor anv other matter whatever ; restore it im- 
mediatelv to the earth. Adieu, my dear children ; may 
vonr liv'es be h.appy. Carry my last remembrance to 
Vonr mother. And for you, my faithful friends, receive 
"this last farewell, and may you live in peace^ Havin 
said these words, he covered his face and died, siuceiely 
lamented by all his people. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 71 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

356-323 B.C. 

" Self-eonquest is the greatest of victories." — Plato. 

QNE day a terrible event transpired in the ancient 
^ city of Ephesus. The magnificent temple of Diana 
one of the famous ScA-en Wonders of the World, was in 
flames. The people from all parts of tlie co.mtrv flocked 
to the scene of the imposing conflagration. This mar- 
vellous temple had been built at the expense of all Asia 
M.nor. One hundred and twenty-seven kings had con- 
tributed one hundred and twenty-seven magnificent col- 
umns of Parian marble, which were sixty feet in heio-ht 
and wrought by the most famous artists. Pliny says that 
two hundred and twenty years were occupied in rearing 
this vast structure. But now the flames mount hio-her 
aud higher. All the efforts of the distracted people to 
subdue them are in vain. See ! the rapacious tongues of 
fire are nearing the sacred image of the goddess, which 
the Ephesians believed liad fallen from heaven. Whv 
does not Diana, the great goddess, prevent the destructio;, 
ot tins, her most imposing and sacred shrine ? The people 
call upon her in tlteir wild despair ; but still the flames 
devour with fury the magnificent structure, and the air is 
rent with the cries of the horror-stricken multitude. 
That very night, while the heavens were still red with 
the lurid light of the burning temple, another event oc- 
curred upon the other side of the ^gean Sea, in the roval 



72 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

palace of the kiiigaom of Macedon. A tiny infant first 
opened its eyes upon this strange world ; and above his 
royal cradle, king and nobles bent in gratified delight, 
and welcomed the little stranger with proud joy. But 
what had this helpless babe to do with the burning temple 
in P:phesus? This baby was the infant Alexander the 
Great; and so superstitious were the people of those 
times that in order to explain the strange fatality of a 
great goddess like Diana allowing her magnificent temple 
to be burned and destroyed without any miraculous inter- 
vention on her part, to punish such a sacrilegious dese- 
cration of her shrine by wicked mortals, the historians 
of those days declared that as Diana was at that time 
lending her aid and presence to insure the future great- 
ness of the new-born infant Alexander, it was on account 
of her absence on so beneficent an errand, that her temple 
was not ouarded from this imi)i()us destruction. 

But what mortal had so dared to insult the gods, as to 
apply the torch to this most sacred shrine? At last it 
was discovered that a person named Herostratus had 
fired the temple ; not by accident, l)ut with wicked intent. 
Upon being put to the torture in order to force him to 
confess the motive for so infamous a crime, he declared 
that it was to immortalize his own name, that he might 
be known to oil posterity as the destroyer of this famous 
structure. A decree was then published that all should 
be prohibited from mentioning his name. But this decree 
only caused greater curiosity, and scarcely one of the 
historians of those times have failed to mention the name 
of this wicked and vain man. 

These events happened about 356 b.c. Alexander was 
born the heir to the throne of one of the Grecian king- 
doms. His father was King Philip of Macedon. The 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 73 

kingdom of Macedon was in the northern part of Greece. 
The mother of Alexander was Olympias, the daughter of 
the king of Epirus, which was a kingdom lying west of 
Macedon. Olympias was a woman of very strong charac- 
ter, but possessed also some unlovely traits. His father, 
King Philip, was a great warrior, and during the boyhood 
of Alexander, he made many conquests in various parts 
of Greece. Alexander was much favored in the circum- 
stances of his early life, and also in the possession of a 
superior mind, and handsome face and figure, and most 
winning manners. He was born to rule ; and had he 
always used his many gifts as wisely as he employed his 
executive powers and physical courage, he would have 
been one of the greatest of men, whereas now he can be 
called only one of the greatest of conquerors, whose life 
was marred by some of the most terrible of vices. 

But the boy Alexander is intensely attractive and inter- 
esting. He seemed to possess few of the faults of youth. 
He was active, and full of ardor and enthusiasm, and at the 
same time he was calm and prudent in emergencies, and very 
thoughtful and far-seeing. He was kind and considerate, 
faithful to his friends, and generous to his foes. He pos- 
sessed a remarkable mind, and delighted in study and in 
improving conversation with his teachers. He was privi- 
leged to be a pupil of the famous Aristotle. The progress 
of the pupil was equal to the care and ability of the pre- 
ceptor. Alexander became very fond of philosophy and 
metaphysics, even though a young boy ; and he did not 
omit mathematics and the study of the wonders of nature. 
But Alexander applied himself chiefly to the study of 
morality, as it contributes to the good conduct of a prince 
and the best government of a people. How sad it was 
that, with all these desirable qualities of heart and mind, 



74 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

his later years were marred by the greatest of vices, and 
his natural noble impulses were deadened by a life of 
brutal ferocity and drunken debauchery, which tarnished 
the brightness of his glor}' and sullied the reputation of 
a great conqueror, whose brilliant actions and intrepid 
bravery dazzled the eyes of friends and foes ! 

But we must not suppose that the youthful Alexander 
was a melancholy dreamer or an embryo philosopher. His 
greatest delight was to read of the exploits of the Grecian 
heroes, which were described by Homer, an ancient poet 
who lived four or five hundred years before the time of 
Alexander. There were then no printed books, but these 
and other works were written on parchment rolls, which 
the young scholars were taught to read. As Homer's 
tales were written in Greek, which was the native lan- 
guage of Alexander, he could understand them very 
easily, and was greatly excited with the stirring scenes 
there depicted. Aristotle ordered a beautiful copy of 
Homer's poems to be prepared exjjressly for his princely 
pupil. Alexander afterwards carried this copy with him 
in all his campaigns ; and years after, when he was fighting 
the Persians, among the spoils taken from them was a 
very costly casket, which King Darius had used for 
jewels or perfumes. This box was always afterwards em- 
ployed by Alexander as a receptacle for his beautiful copy 
of Homer ; and he placed it with his sword beneath his 
pillow at night. Although he was a prince, ha was not 
brought up in habits of luxury. The Greeks in those days 
had no firearms, and in 1)attle combatants fought in hand- 
to-hand conflicts. It was the business of the oflficers to 
lead the men on, and set them the example of bravery by 
performing themselves deeds of daring and valor. It was 
considered necessary to accustom the young, even though 




ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 75 

princes, to hardship and fatigue. Alexander was full of 
energy and spirit. He early evinced a great degree of 
ambition ; and when news of his father's many conquests 
would be brought to the court in Macedon, Alexander 
often remarked to his companions, in a tone of sorrow 
and dejection, — 

" There will be nothing left for us to conquer." 
The story of Bucephalus, his famous horse, illustrates 
the courage and also the keen observation of Alexander. 
A spirited war-horse had been sent to Philip while Alex- 
ander was quite a young boy. The king and his courtiers 
w^ent out into one of the parks to view and try the horse ; 
but so furious was the animal that no one dared to mount 
him, as he seemed entirely unmanageable. Philip was 
very much provoked, and gave orders that the horse should 
be sent back into Thessaly, as useless. 

Alexander had stood quietly by, noticing the actions of 
the animal and attentively studying his traits. He per- 
ceived that the horse seemed to be frightened at his own 
shadow ; and he begged the consent of his father to 
allow him to try the experiment of mounting him. Philip 
at last gave a reluctant consent, as the attempt seemed 
so hazardous for a young boy, when all his experienced 
grooms condemned the horse as too vicious to be subdued. 
Alexander, however, quickly turned the frightened creature 
round, so that he could not see his shadow ; and patting 
him on the head and neck, reassui-ed him with the gentle 
tones of his voice ; and as he became less restive, he 
sprang upon the animal and gave him full rein to run as 
he pleased. King Philip and his nobles first looked on in 
terror, then in admiration, as the splendid steed flew over 
the plains hke the wind, with his intrepid rider seated in 
calm grace upon his back, evidently perfectly fearless and 



7G ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

self-possessed. Having allowed the horse to tire himself 
with his free run, Alexander reined him in with perfect 
and returned safely to the king. Philip was so 



ease 



pleased and proud of his son that he embraced Alexander 
when he had alighted, and kissing his forehead, he said to 
him, •' My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for 
Macedon is below thy merit." This Bucephalus after- 
wards became the famous war-horse of Alexander the 
Great, and many surprising stories are told of his marvel- 
lous sagacity. AVhen this horse was saddled and equipped 
for battle, he seemed to realize his proud position, and 
would allow no one to approach him but Alexander. 
When his master wished to mount him, he would kneel 
upon his forelegs. Some historians relate that when 
Alexander was fighting in a desperate battle, and had 
plunged too imprudently amidst his infuriated foes, Bu- 
cephalus, though severely wounded, bore his master to a 
place of safety, although iie was himself bleeding to death, 
pierced with the fatal darts of the enemy. Then, perceiv- 
ing that Alexander was safe, he fell exhausted, and expired. 
Others say that Bucephalus lived to be thirty years of age, 
and that Alexander so mourned for him at his death that 
he built a city on the spot where his faithf =1 horse had 
been buried, and called it Bucephalia in honor of tlie 
noble and trusty steed. 

When Alexander was only sixteen years of age, his 
father, Philip, made him regent of Macedon while he was 
absent on a great military campaign against the other 
Grecian states. 

At this time some ambassadors from the Persian court 
arrived in Macedon. In the absence of Philip, Alexander 
received them with courtesy. They, supposing that he 
would be interested in hearing about the splendors of the 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 77 

Persian court, entertained him with stories of the famous 
Hanging Gardens of Babylon ; and the vine of gold, the 
grapes of which were emeralds, rubies, and other precious 
stones; and the marvellous golden plantain-tree. But 
Alexander, instead of appearing absorbed and delighted 
with these glowing accounts of fabulous wealth, inq^'uired 
about the geography of the country, the various roads, and 
the strength and power of the Persian king. What battles 
he had fought, how he behaved towards his enemies, and 
how he governed his people. The ambassadors, astonished 
at such maturity in one so young, and filled with admiration 
for the Grecian prince, began to compare among them- 
selves Alexander and their own Artaxerxes, saying, ''This 
young prince is great, while our king is only rich." 

When Alexander was eighteen years of age, King 
Philip took him with him on one of his military cam- 
paigns, during which Philip fought one of his great battles 
in Breotia. Philip gave the command of one of the wings 
of Ills army to Alexander; and so valiantly did he lead 
his troops, that his wing was victorious, and Philip and his 
command had to exert themselves to prevent being out- 
done by the youthful prince. His mother, Olympias, was 
of a haughty and imperious temper, and Philip himself 
was headstrong and obstinate, and the result of their 
frequent quarrels was a final separation, and Philip ob- 
tained a divorce from his wife, she returning to the court 
of her father. Philip then married a young and beautiful 
princess, and at the wedding festivities an incident oc- 
curred which illustrated the traits of both father and son. 
The uncle of the new queen, having made some disparag- 
ing remark about Olympias, the mother of Alexander, 
that prince threw the cup from wliich he had been 
drinking at the off*ender's head. Attains, the queen's 



78 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

uncle, then threw his cup at Alexander, and Philip, en- 
raged at such disturbance at the feast, seized his sword, 
and rushed towards his son. Having a lame foot, he 
stumbled, and fell upon the floor ; and Alexander, looking 
upon him with scorn and contempt, exclaimed, "What 
a fine hero the states of Greece have to lead their armies, 
a man who cannot get across the floor without tumbling 
down ! " He then turned away and left the palace, and 
afterwards joined his mother in Epirus, and espoused her 
cause in the quarrel with his father. 

Philip had been planning a great expedition into Asia. 
He had formed a strong combination among the states of 
Greece, and had raised a large army. Alexander is said 
to have taken sides with his mother, not so much out of 
filial devotion, as because he was jealous of his father's 
conquests, and desirous himself of reaping the glory 
which seemed to await the Grecian army in the coming 
campaign. Before setting forth upon this expedition, 
Philip desired to become reconciled to his son Alexander, 
and Olympias. He realized the importance of securing 
the co-operation of Alexander in his plans ; and it would 
be dangerous to leave his own kingdom with a son so 
near in open hostility. Whereupon, Philip sent concilia- 
tory messages to oiympias and Alexander, and he pro- 
posed that one of his own daughters should marry the 
present king of Epirus, who was the brother of Olympias. 
His overtures were peacefully received ; and Olympias and 
Alexander returned to Macedon, where great preparations 
were made for the proposed wedding festivities. Philip 
determined that this event should be celebrated with most 
gorgeous pomp and splendor. 

He received very costly presents from the other states 
of Greece ; and though their professions of friendship 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 79 

were veiy hollow on both sides, he took this occasion to 
pay marked attention to their kings and generals ; and 
they sent him golden crowns, most beautifully wrought, 
and large embassies, expressing their good wishes. 
Athens, the seat of literature in Greece, sent a poem, in 
which the histor}^ of Philip's expedition into Persia was 
related in anticipation, and in which he was described as 
being most triumphantly successful. 

The wedding was at length celebrated with much splen- 
dor, and the day after the nuptials was devoted to games 
and processions. In one of the latter, which was a 
religious ceremou}-, twelve statues of the gods, carved 
with marvellous art, were carried with great pomp through 
the streets. A thirteenth, which surpassed them all in 
magnificence, was a statue of Philip, representing him 
as a god. The procession was moving towards a great 
theatre, where games and spectacles were to be exhibited. 
At length Philip himself appeared in the procession. 
He had ordered that a wide space should be left around 
him, so that he might be more plainly visible to the 
populace, and also as a proof of his confidence in the love 
of his people, thus to expose himself without a guard. 
He was clothed in white robes, and adorned with a spark- 
ling crown. Just as the statues of the gods had been 
carried into the theatre, and as that of Philip was about 
to be born in, an officer of the guards, a young Mace- 
donian nobleman, named Pausanias, advanced quickly 
towards King Philip, and before the spectators suspected 
his design, he plunged his dagger into the heart of the 
king, w4io fell dead upon the ground. All was now con- 
fusion. The murderer was instanth' cut to pieces by the 
guards ; and an officer of state hastened to inform Alex- 
ander of his father's death, and his succession to the 



80 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

throne. An assembly of the leading statesmen wao 
hastily summoned, and Alexander was proclaimed king. 
It was by some supposed that the motive which induced 
Pausanias to murder Philip was a private revenge for a 
personal insult he had received from the uncle of Philip's 
present wife, which insult Philip would not notice. But 
others believed that the murder was instigated by the 
other states of Greece, who were hostile to Philip. 
Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, was Philip's bitterest 
enemy, and he used his eloquence in stirring up the 
Grecians against him. These orations were called his 
Philippics. 

Alexander's first measures were to punish his father's 
murderers. Although it could not be ascertained who 
were involved in the plot, several were suspected, and put 
to death. Alexander decided not to make any change 
in his father's appointments, and to carry out his proposed 
campaigns. There were two officers in particular, who 
were the especial confidants of Philip, — Antipater and 
Parmenio. Antipater had charge of the civil, and Par- 
menio of military affairs. Alexander, at this time, was 
only twenty years of age ; and Parmenio, a very distin- 
guished general, was sixty 3'ears old. But the genius, 
power, and enthusiam of Alexander's character made 
even men of such age and experience willing to obey his 
orders, and aid in the execution of his plans. 

The Macedonians advised Alexander not to attempt to 
hold all the states of Greece ; but to relinquish the con- 
quests of PhiUp, and join with them in an alliance. But 
Alexander determined to march boldl}^ into their midst, 
and demand their continued subjection, which his father 
had gained. This was a bold measure for so young a 
prince. He thereupon collected his forces, and set forth 




XDUMO § I!S]E10: §, 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 81 

at their head. He first marched his troops to the banks 
of the Danube, which he crossed in one night. He de- 
feated the king of the Triballi in a great battle, and sub- 
dued several barbarous nations. While he was thus 
engaged, several of the Grecian cities, inflamed by the 
eloquence of Demosthenes, who harangued the people, 
calling Alexander '' a child, a hare-brained boy," formed 
a powerful alliance against him. A false report that 
Alexander was dead inspired the Thebians with a bold- 
ness which proved their ruin. Alexander, having secured 
his kingdom from the barbarians, marched with much ex- 
pedition towards Greece, and passed the Strait of Ther- 
mopylae. He then said to his army, "Demosthenes 
called me, in his orations, a child, when I was in Illyria, 
and among Triballi ; he called me a young man, when I 
was in Thessaly ; and I must now show him, before the 
walls of Athens, that I am a man grown." At the Pass 
of Thermopylae, a great council was held between Alex- 
ander and the Thessalians, who were favorable to his 
claims. Alexander now appeared so suddenly before the 
city of Thebes, as to astonish them. He demanded only 
that the}^ should deliver up to him the two ringleaders of 
the revolt against him, and then he promised a general 
freedom to the citizens. But the Thebans insultingly re- 
plied that they would only comply, if two of his generals 
wTre delivered to them. Alexander now determined upon 
a speedy punishment, and attacked them so vigorously, 
that the city was taken, and a large number of the Thebans 
were killed. Alexander then resolved to make Thebes a 
warning to all the Grecian states, and the cit}' was accord- 
ingly destroyed, and thirty thousand of the Thebans were 
sold into slavery. He, however, set the priests at liberty ; 
and those who had opposed the revolt, and also the descen- 



82 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

dauts of Pindar, the famous poet. Alexander now sent 
word to Athens, and demanded that they should deliver 
up to him ten orators, wlioni he supposed had influenced 
the people against Philii) and himself. The Athenians, 
though in this dilemma, were still unwilling to deliver up 
their orators to death ; and at last, one Demades, who was 
a friend of Alexander's, offered to undertake the embassy 
alone, and plead for them. Alexander, having now 
satiated his revenge, and believing that the C4recians 
were enough subdued to be controlled, waived his demand. 

He then summoned all the monarchs and potentates of 
Greece, to meet him at Corinth, that he might obtain 
from them the same supreme command against the Per- 
sians which had l)een conferred by them upon his father 
Phihp. The deliberations of the assembly were short, 
and Alexander was appointed generalissimo against the 
Persians. 

There is a story told of Alexander and the philosopher 
Diogenes, who was then at Corinth. Alexander supposed 
that Diogenes would of course come with the officers and 
governors of cities, and philosophers, who waited upon 
him innnediately to congratulate him upon his election. 
But Diogenes did not come, and so Alexander, having 
curiosity to see a man who would thus slight a king, con- 
descended to call upon Diogenes. Attended by his cour- 
tiers, he paid the philosopher a visit. 

Diogenes was found l3-ing in the sun, and seeing the 
crowd of people advance toward him, he sat up and fixed 
his eyes upon Alexander. 

That prince was surprised to see so great a philosopher 
in such seeming poverty, and accosting him kindly, asked 
him courteously if there was anything he wanted. 

"Yes," replied Diogenes, "that you would stand a 
little out of my sunshine." 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 83 

The courtiers of the monarch were astounded at such 
audacious boldness ; but Alexander exclaimed, — 

"Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." For 
Alexander perceived, that even with all his wealth and 
power, he was in some sense inferior to a man to whom 
he could give, and from whom he could take, nothing. 

Alexander now returned to Macedon to prepare for his 
great expedition into Asia. As king of Macedon he pos- 
sessed large estates and revenues, which were his own 
personal property, independent of the state. He appor- 
tioned these among his othcers and generals, both those 
who were to go with him, and those who were to remain 
to guard his kingdom, over which he placed Antipater 
as viceregent durino- his absence. 

H'e displayed such generosity in his gifts, that his 
friends asked him what he had reserved for himself. 

" Hope," replied Alexander. 

After all things were ready, Alexander celebrated the 
religious sacrifices and ceremonies. This great Macedo- 
nian festival was held in honor of the Muses, as well as 
Jupiter. The Muses, according to the belief of the 
Greeks, were nine singing and dancing maidens, who 
were very beautiful in face and form, graceful in motion, 
and brilliant in mind. They were supposed to have first 
come from Thrace, and having gone to Mount Olympus, 
they were made goddesses by Jupiter. At last they se- 
lected for their place of residence a palace in Mount 
Parnassus. They were worshipped all over Greece and 
Italy as the goddesses of music and dancing. After- 
wards arts and sciences were assigned to them, — one 
being the goddess of history, another of astronomy, 
another of tragedy, etc. 

Alexander celebrated these festivities with great mag- 



84 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

nificence and pomp, and then bid a long farewell to his 
native land. His army consisted of about thirty thousand 
foot and four or five thousand horse. But they were all 
brave men. His officers were experienced men of sixty 
years of age, who had served under Philip his father. 
Parmenio commanded the infantry, Philotas his son the 
cavalr\^ Alexander sent a fleet of one hundred and fifty 
galleys over the ^gean Sea, to land at Sestos, to be 
ready to transport his army across the Hellespont. The 
army marched to Sestos by land. Having arrived there, 
Alexander left Parmenio to conduct the transportation of 
the army, while he himself went in a single galley to 
visit the ruins of Troy, which city was the scene of 
Homer's poems, which had so charmed Alexander in his 
early years. So Alexander resolved that his first landing 
in Asia should be at Troy. As they approached the 
Asiatic shore, Alexander took the helm and steered the 
galley himself, and just before he reached the land, he 
stood upon the prow and threw a javelin at the shore as 
he approached, as a sign of his purpose to take posses- 
sion. He then leaped upon the land before any of his 
crew, and afterwards offered sacrifices to the gods, having 
erected altars on the shore to Jupiter, Minerva, and to 
Hercules. 

A large part of Asia Minor had been settled by the 
Greeks, and sometimes these cities had been under Grecian 
rule, and sometimes under Persian. They were now in- 
cluded in the dominion of Persia. One of these cities, 
called Lampsacus, had incurred the anger of the Greeks, 
because it had formerly revolted from their rule. Alex- 
ander determined to destroy this cit}'. The ambassador 
sent by the city to implore his mercy was a famous histo- 
rian, who had once been Alexander's teacher. Alexan- 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 85 

der knowing his errand, and fearing his former friendship 
might weaken liis resolve, declared with a solemn oath, 
as the ambassador approached him, that he would not 
grant the request he was about to make. The witty histo- 
rian replied, — 

" I have come to implore j^ou to destroy Lampsacus." 

Alexander, pleased with the readiness of the reply, 
kept his oath ; and of course the cit}' was saved. 

In his progress onward, Alexander found himself 
obliged to cross either Mount Ida, or a river which de- 
scended from its slopes, called the Granicus. As they 
neared the river, some of the Grecian scouts, or as they 
were called by the Greeks, prodromi, reported that the 
opposite side was lined with Persian troops, waiting to 
dispute the passage. 

Parmenio counselled Alexander against an immediate 
crossing, but Alexander was unwilling to delay. Accord- 
ingly, the army advanced to the banks in order of battle. 
The centre portion of the Grecian troops was arranged in 
a peculiar manner, and was called a phalanx. The men 
composing it were heavil}^ armed. They bore a shield 
upon the left arm, and they carried spears sixteen feet 
long and pointed with iron, which they clasped firmly 
with both hands, with the points projecting in front. 
These men were placed in line, one behind another, to 
the number of sixteen, all facing the enemy. So that a 
phalanx contained sixteen thousand men. The spears 
were so long, that when drawn up in close lines, the points 
of eight or ten of the ranks projected in front, forming a 
bristling wall of sharp points of steel. This wall no force 
could penetrate ; men, horses, elephants, rushed upon it, 
only to meet inevitable destruction. If their enemies 
threw javelins from a distance, the shields upon their 



$6 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

arms were held in such a manner as to form a mass of 
close scales of metal, upon which the javelins fell harm- 
lessly. The troops upon the sides of the phalanx were 
called the wings, and were composed of cavalry and foot- 
soldiers, who were more lightly armed, and could there- 
fore move with greater speed. 

Alexander commanded one wing, and Parmenio the 
other. The Persians had assembled in vast numbers 
upon the opposite shore. The Grecian army, led by Alex- 
ander, descended into the stream, and moved on through 
the water. The Persians dashed down the farther banks, 
and strove to oppose their landing. A terrible battle en- 
sued, the soldiers grappling with each other in the midst 
of the waves, and the Granicus ran red with the blood 
of the wounded. Alexander was fearless and n-resistible, 
and his long white plume, waving from his shining helmet, 
was a conspicuous target for the arrows and javelins of 
the enemy. At one time, meeting the foe in close com- 
bat, a Persian horseman aimed a blow at his head with a 
sword. The weapon took off the white plume, and cut 
into the helmet of Alexander, wlio immediately stabbed 
his antagonist through the heart. Just as a second Per- 
sian had raised his sword to strike a fatal blow npon the 
exposed head of the Grecian hero, a Macedonian general 
cut the uplifted arm from the assailant's body, and saved 
the life of Alexander the Great. The Persians were de- 
feated, and Alexander landed his brave band of warriors 
upon the opposite bank, while the terrified Persians fled 
in dire confusion. 

Darius himself had not commanded this Persian force, 
and he employed all of the following winter in preparing 
for a vigorous defence of his dominions from the en- 
croachino- foe. 



ALEXANDEE THE GREAT. 87 

Alexander, however, did not remain idle during the 
winter. He marched from province to province, meeting 
with many adventures. During this time Parmenio had 
remained in the western part of Asia Minor, with quite a 
large force. As the spring approached, Alexander or- 
dered him to meet him at Gordium. One reason which 
influenced Alexander in this plan was the desire to at- 
tempt to untie the famous Gordian knot. The story of 
the Gordian knot was this : — 

Gordius was a sort of mountain farmer. One day he 
was plowing, and an eagle flew down and alighted upon 
his yoke, and remained there until he had finished his 
plowing. This was an omen ; but Gordius did not know 
what it meant. So he went to a neighboring town to con- 
sult the prophets and soothsayers. On his way he met a 
maiden who was going forth to draw water. Gordius fell 
into conversation with her, and related to her the occur- 
rence which had just transpired. The maiden advised 
him to go back and offer a sacrifice to Jupiter. Finally 
she consented to go back with him and aid him. The 
affair ended in her becoming his wife, and they lived in 
peace and happiness for many years upon their farm. 
They had a son named Midas. The father and mother 
were accustomed to go out in their wagon drawn by oxen, 
with Midas as their driver. One day they were going into 
the town in this manner, at a time when it happened that 
there was an assembly convened, which was in a state of 
great perplexity, on account of civil dissensions in the 
country. They had just inquired of an oracle what they 
should do. The oracle said that " a cart would bring 
them a king who would terminate their eternal broils." 
Just then Midas came up, driving the cart in which his 
father and mother were seated. The assembly thought 



88 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

at once that this must be the cart meant by the oracle, 
and they made Gordius king by acclamation. Tliey took 
the cart and yoke to preserve as sacred rehcs, consecrating 
them to Jupiter, and Gordius tied the yoke to the pole of 
the cart by a thong of leather, making a knot so close 
and complicated that nobod}' could untie it again. It 
was called the Gordian knot. The oracle afterwards said 
that whoever should untie this knot should become mon- 
arch of all Asia. Thus far, nobody had succeeded. 

Alexander was very desirous of examining this wonder- 
ful knot and trying his own fortune. He accordingly 
went into the temple where the sacred cart had been 
placed, and after looking at the knot, he became con- 
vinced that it could not be untied, whereupon he cut it to 
pieces with his sword. 

From this story comes the old saying, when any one 
gets out of a difficulty by very violent means, "He has 
cut the Gordian knot." 

After leaving Gordium, Alexander proceeded with his 
whole army against Darius, who was now advancing to 
meet him. 

On a very warm day, after a long and fatiguing march, 
the Grecian army reached the river Cydnus, a small stream 
which came down from Mount Taurus, near the city of 
Tarsus. Alexander, warm and weary, plunged into the 
cold mountain stream, and was taken with a violent chill, 
and as he was lifted out of the water, he fainted away. 
He was borne to his tent. A severe and protracted fever 
came on. Alexander bewailed this enforced delay, and 
summoned his physicians, to whom he said, — 

" The present condition of my affairs will not admit 
either of slow remedies or fearful physicians. A speedy 
death is more eligible to me than a slow cure. In case 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 89 

the physicians think it is in their power to do me an}^ 
good, tliey are to know that I do not so much wish to 
live as to fight." 

All his physicians but one, however, were afraid to dare 
any violent and hazardous remedies, especially as an un- 
favorable result would endanger their honor ; for Darius 
had published that he would reward with a thousand tal- 
ents the man who should kill Alexander. 

His old family physician, named Philip, who had at- 
tended him from childhood, offered to give him a dose of 
medicine which would be speedy in its effects, but desired 
three days to prepare it. During this interval of waiting- 
Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, who had been 
left behind in Cappadocia, warning him against this phy- 
sician Philip, and stating that Darius had bribed him by 
promising a thousand talents, and his sister in marriage. 
Alexander courageously refrained from divulging its con- 
tents, and placed the letter under his pillow. 

When Philip entered the tent with the medicine, Alex- 
ander took the cup, and handing the letter at the same 
time to the physician, he swallowed the dose without 
waiting his perusal of it. After reading the letter, Philip 
replied, — 

"Royal sir, your recovery will soon clear me of the 
guilt of murder, with which I am charged." 

Three days after, Alexander showed himself to his 
army, who were filled with delight at his wonderful recov- 
ery ; and the accused plwsician was now the recipient of 
the most lavish praises, and looked upon with the deep- 
est reverence, because he had saved the life of their 
sovereign. 

Slowly Darius marched in stately grandeur to meet his 
advancing enemy. A description of his martial proces- 



90 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

sion reads more like a picture of a grand tournament 
than the march of an army. One of the historians thus 
describes this gorgeous pageant : — 

"The king advanced with his troops towards the Eu- 
phrates. It was a custom long used by the Persians never 
to set out upon a march till after sunrise, at which time 
the trumpet was sounded for that purpose from the king's 
tent. Over this tent was exhibited to the view of the 
whole army the image of the sun set in crystal, as the 
Persians were worshippers of the sun and fire. 

"The order they observed in their march was as follows : 
First, they carried silver altars, on which there was 
fire, called by them sacred and eternal ; and these were 
followed by the Magi, singing hymns after the manner of 
their country. They were accompanied by three hundred 
and sixty -five youths, corresponding to the number of 
days in a year, clothed in purple robes. Afterwards came 
a chariot consecrated to Jupiter, drawn by white horses, 
and followed by a courser of a prodigious size, to whom 
the}' gave the name of the sun's horse ; and the equerries 
were dressed in white, each having a rod of gold in his 
hand. 

" Ten chariots, adorned with sculptures in gold and sil- 
ver, followed after. Then marched a body of horse, 
composed of twelve nations, whose manners and customs 
were various, and all armed in a different stjle. Next 
advanced those whom the Persians called the Immortals, 
amounting to ten thousand, who surpassed the rest of the 
barbarians in the sumptuousness of their apparel. They 
all wore gold collars, were clothed in robes of gold tis- 
sues, with surtouts completely covered with precious 
stones. Then followed those called the king's relations, 
to the number of fifteen thousand, in habits very much 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 91 

resembling those worn by women, and more remarkable 
for the vain pomp of their dress than the glitter of their 
arms. Then came the king's guards ; they carried the 
cloak of the monarch, and walked before his chariot, in 
which he seemed to sit as on a high throne. This chariot 
was enriched on both sides with imao-es of the orods in 
gold and silver ; and from the middle of the yoke, which 
was covered with jewels, rose two statues a cubit in 
height, the one representing war, the other peace, having 
a gold eagle between them, with wings extended, as 
readv to take its flis^ht. 

" But nothing could equal the magnificence of the king. 
He was clothed in a vest of purple, striped with silver, 
and over it a long robe glittering all over with gold and 
precious stones, that represented two falcons rushing 
from the clouds and pecking at one another. Around 
his waist he wore a gold girdle, called cidaris, after the 
manner of women, from which hung his scimitar, the 
scabbard of which flamed all over with gems. On his 
head he wore a tiara, or mitre, round which was a fillet of 
blue mixed with white. On each side of him walked two 
hundred of his nearest relations, followed by ten thousand 
pikemen, whose pikes were adorned with silver and tipped 
with gold ; and lastly, thirty thousand infantry, who com- 
posed the rear-guard. These were followed by the king's 
horses, four hundred in number, all of which were led. 

"Then came the chariots of his wife Statira and his 
mother Sysigambis, with the several female attendants 
of both queens, riding on horseback. After them came 
fifteen large chariots, in which were the king's children 
and those who had the care of their education, escorted 
by a band of household officers. Then followed three 
hundred and sixty carriages, containing the ladies of the 
court, dressed in the costumes of princesses. 



92 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

"After these marched six hundred mules and three 
hundred camels, wliicli carried the king's treasure, and 
were o-uarded by a great body of archers. After these 
came other chariots, in which rode the wives of the crown 
officers and of the greatest lords of the court ; then the 
sutlers and servants of the army. In the rear were a 
body of light-armed troops, with their commanders, who 
closed the imposing procession." 

Darius, at tlie head of six hundred thousand men, and 
surrounded with this mighty pomp, considered himself 
invincible, and imagined that he had only to show his 
o-oro-eous armv to the few Grecian troops led by the boy 
Alexander, in order to inspire such awe as should cause 
them to tly in terror. 

The two opposing forces came in sight of each other 
upon a plain near the city of Issus. It was now evening. 
At midnight the army of Alexander had reached a defile 
in the chain of mountains called Mount Taurus. Among 
these mountains there are various tracts of open country, 
and upon one of these the army of Darius was encamped. 
Alexander ascended one of the eminences from whence 
he could look down upon the great plain beyond, which 
was dimly illuminated by the smouldering fires of the 
Persian encampment. Alexander there sacrificed by 
torchlight to the gods of the Grecians, and returning to 
his army, prepared for an early conflict. In the morning, 
at break of day, Alexander began his march down to the 
plain. The battle waged hotly all day, and at sunset all 
the valleys and defiles around the plain of Issus wer^ 
thronged with the vast masses of the Persian hosts, flying 
in confusion from the victoi'ious Macedonians. The 
flight of Darius had been so sudden that he had left his 
wife and mother and children and nmch of his treasure 




DARIUS. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 93 

behind in the deserted camp. He pressed on in his 
chariot as far as he could, and then mounted a horse and 
fled for his life. Alexander and his army soon abandoned 
the pursuit, and returned to take possession of the Persian 
camp. The tents of King Darius were filled with gold 
and silver vessels, caskets, boxes of rich perfumes, and 
many articles of luxury. The greater part of his vast 
treasures, however, he had previously sent to Damascus, 
where the}^ were afterwards captured b}' Parmenio. So 
that Alexander came into possession of all his splendid 
tieasures, upon which he had so prided himself. Alex- 
ander treated the captive wife, mother, and children of 
Darius with great kindness, and gave them every atten- 
tion he would have paid to honored guests. 

Darius got together a small remnant of his army and 
continued his flight. After he had crossed the Euphrates, 
he sent an ambassador to Alexander to make propositions 
for peace. He offered him any sum he desired as a ran- 
som for his wife, mother, and child, and agreed to be- 
come his ally and friend if he would deliver them up and 
depart to his own dominions. Alexander replied by a 
brief letter. He reminded him that the Persians had 
been the first to invade Greece. "I am acting only on 
the defensive," wrote Alexander. " The gods, who al- 
ways favor the right, have given me the victory. I am 
now monarch of a large part of Asia, and your sovereign 
king. If you will admit this, and come to me as my sub- 
ject, I will restore your wife, mother, and child without 
an}"- ransom. And, at any rate, whatever you decide in 
respect to these proposals, if you wish to communicate 
with me on any subject hereafter, I shall pay no attention 
to what you send unless you address it to me as your 
king." 



94 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 



As the vast army of the Persian king had now been 
defeated, none of \he smaller kingdoms or provinces 
thought of resisting. They yielded one after another, and 
Alexander appointed governors of his own to rule over 
them. He then advanced along the shores of the Medi- 
terranean Sea, until he reached the city of Tyre. 

The Tyrians wished to avoid a quarrel if possible, and 
so sent complimentary congratulations to Alexander, pre- 
sentino- him with a golden crown. Alexander replied 
courteously, and stated that his reason for coming to 
Tyre was to offer sacrifices to Hercules, a god whom the 
Tyrians worshipped. The Tyrians, fearful of allowing 
him to enter the city, sent him word that it would not be 
in their power to receive him in the city, but that he could 
offer the sacrifice on the site of ancient Tyre, as there 
was a temple sacred to Hercules among the ruins there. 

This answer displeased Alexander, and he now deter- 
mined to build a broad causeway from the mainland to 
the island upon which the present city of Tyre stood. 
This causeway he would build out of the ruins of old 
Tyre, and then march his army over it and take the new 
city. His soldiers accordingly commenced this work. 
But the Tyrians constantly harassed the workers ; now 
attacking them with arrows and javelins ; then they took 
a large galley and filled it with combustibles, and towing 
it neir The enemy's works, they set fire to it ; and putting 
it in motion towards the pier where there was the largest 
collection of engines and machines, the vessel drifted 
down upon Alexander's works, and notwithstanding the 
most strenuous efforts of the Macedonians, the whole 
mass was destroyed. Not long after this the sea itself 
came to the aid of the Tyrians, and a fearful storm de- 
stroyed the portions of the work which had escaped the 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 95 

fire. Whereupon the Tyrians deridingly inquired, 
" Whether Alexander was greater tlian Neptune, and 
if they pretended to prevail over that God?" 

But Alexander was not to be defeated by fire, or storm, 
or the hostile Tyrians, and again ordered his men to 
repair the pier. Meanwhile, Alexander himself collected 
and equipped a fleet, and sailed into the Tyriau seas. 

The fleet of galleys now protected the men at work on 
the pier, and Alexander began to prepare for the final 
assault. He proposed to force his entrance on the south- 
ern side of the city, where there was a large breach in 
the wall. 

The plan was successful. He prepared a number of 
ships, with platforms raised upon them in snch a manner 
that on getting near the walls they could be letdown, and 
form a sort of bridge, over which the men could pass to 
the broken fragments of the wall, and thence ascend 
through the breach above. 

The ships advanced to the proposed place of landing. 
The bridges were lowered, and before the Tyrians realized 
their danger the city was filled with thirty thousand infu- 
riated soldiers, who showed them no mercy. Thus the 
city was stormed. 

Alexander here displayed a brutal ferocity which tar- 
nished the brightness of his victory. The inhabitants 
v/ere put to the sword, some were executed, some thrown 
into the sea ; and it is said that two thousand were cruci- 
fied along the seashore. 

Prosperity and power were beginning to exert a bane- 
ful influence upon the character of Alexander. He be- 
came naughty, imperious, and cruel. About this time 
Darius sent him a second communication, proposing terms 
of peace. Darius offered him a large sum of money for 



96 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 



the ransom of his wife, mother, and child, and agreed to 
give him all the country he had conquered. He also 
offered him his daughter Statira in marriage. He recom- 
mended that he should be content with his conquests, and 
added that he could not hope to succeed in crossmg the 
mighty rivers of the East, which were in the way of his 
ma'i'ch toward the Persian dominions. 

Alexander replied - that if he wished to marry the 
dau-hter of Darius, he could do it without his consent ; 
as to ransom, he was not in want of money ; and as to 
the offer of Darius to give him all the territory west of 
the Euphrates, it was absurd for a man to speak of giving 
what was no longer his own ; that he had crossed too 
manv seas in his military expeditions, since he left Mace- 
don,^o feel any concern about the rivers that he might 
find in his wav ; and that he should continue to pursue 
Darius wherever he might retreat in search of safety and 
protection, and he had no fear but that he should find 
and conquer him at last." 

The siege and storming of Tyre has been considered 
one of the greatest of Alexander's exploits. 

After the subjugation of Tyre, Alexander commenced 
his march for Egypt. His route led him through Judea. 
This was about three hundred years before the birth of 
Christ. A Jewish writer, named Josephus, who lived and 
wrote a few years after Christ, relates the circumstances 
of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem. 

When Alexander had been besieging Tyre, he had sent 
to Judea for supplies, which were refused, as the Jews 
were subjects of Darius. Hearing that Alexander was 
about to pass through Jerusalem, they began to fear a 
fate like that of Tyre. Accordingly the high priest Jad- 
dus, who was the chief magistrate at Jerusalem, caused 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 97 

great sacrifices to be offered to Almighty God, and public 
and solemn prayers were made, to implore his guidance 
and protection. 

The day after these services he told the people that 
they need fear nothing ; for God had appeared to him in 
a dream, and directed him what to do. " We are not to 
resist the conqueror," said he, '4)ut go forth to meet him 
and welcome him. We are to strew the city with flowers, 
and adorn it as for a festive celebration. The priests are 
to be dressed in their pontifical robes, and lead the pro- 
cession, and the people are to follow. In this way we are 
to go out to meet Alexander as he advances, and all will 
be well." 

When Alexander met this procession he stopped, and 
appeared both pleased and surprised. He advanced to 
meet the high priest with an air of the profoundest rev- 
erence. 

Parmenio, astonished at such a sudden change in his 
sovereign, asked for an explanation. To which Alexan- 
der replied, — 

"When I was in Macedon, before setting out on this 
expedition, one night I had a remarkable dream. In my 
dream this very priest appeared before me, dressed just 
as he is now. He exhorted me to banish every fear, to 
cross the Hellespont boldly, and to push forward into the 
heart of Asia. He said that God would march at the 
head of my army, and give me the victor}- over the Per- 
sians. I recognize this priest as the same person who 
appeared to me then. It is through his encouragement 
and aid that I am here, and I am ready to worship and 
adore the God whose service he administers." 

Alexander then joined the high priest in the procession, 
and returned with him to Jerusalem. The high priest 



98 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

afterwards read and interpreted to Alexander some of the 
prophecies of Daniel, which were supposed to refer to that 
conqueror ; and Alexander then assured the Jews that 
they should be protected in their rights, and especially in 
their religious worship. 

Alexander next proceeded to the city of Gaza. This 
was a place of considerable importance, and was under 
command of a governor, named Betis, whom Darius had 
appointed. This Betis refused to surrender the place to 
Alexander; whereupon, he besieged it for two months. 
Having captured the city, Alexander treated the wretched 
captives with extreme cruelty. He cut the garrison to 
pieces, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. Tlien be- 
coming still more brutal, his punishment of Betis was 
most shocking. He ordered him into his presence, and 
said to him, '' You are not going to die the simple 
death that you desire. You must suffer the worst tor- 
ments that revenge can invent." 

Betis calmly looked at Alexander, without reply. This 
still more incensed the cruel conqueror. 

"Observe his dumb arrogance," said Alexander ; " but 
I will conquer him. I will show him that I can draw 
groans from him, if nothing else." 

He then ordered holes to be made throu2:h the heels of 
his helpless victim ; and passing a rope through the 
wounds, commanded the body to be fastened to a chariot, 
and dragged about the city until the poor captive was 
dead. Thus had prosperity and conquest degraded the 
character of Alexander. 

Having destroyed Gaza, with such inhuman brutalit}', 
Alexander now formed a more ambitious project. The 
heroes of Homer were represented as sons of the gods ; 1 
and Alexander now began to aspire to supernatural hon- 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 99 

ors, and accordingly resolved that he should be declared 
to be the son of a god. He determined to visit the temple 
of Jupiter Ammon, in the Oasis of Sivvah, and bribe the 
priests there to declare his divine origin. 

The priests at the great temple of Jupiter Ammon 
received Alexander with marks of distinction and honor. 
After most solemn and magnificent ceremcoiies, the priests, 
pretending to confer with the god in the temple, declared 
that Alexander was indeed his son ; and accordingly they 
paid him almost divine honors. Alexander, in his subse- 
quent orders and decrees, styled himself Alexander king, 
son of Jupiter Ammon. 

On his return from the Oasis, Alexander began build- 
ing a city at the month of the river Nile. This city he 
called Alexandria. This city is the only monument of his 
greatness which still remains. Upon an island near the 
coast, opposite the city of Alexandria, a magnificent light- 
house was erected, which was considered in those days 
one of the Seven Wonders of the world. It was said to 
have been five hundred feet high. 

The building of the city of Alexandria was one of the 
most beneficent acts of Alexander. How much better for 
the world, as well as for his own true glory, if good deeds 
had been the rule instead of the exception in the life of 
this famous man ! 

Alexander was now master of Asia Minor, Phoenicia, 
Judea, and Egypt. He now continued his pursuit of 
Darius. 

The Persian army had crossed the Tigris river, and 
encamped upon the extensive plain of Arbela. Here 
Darius waited the approach of his relentless foe. 

The night before the noted battle between Alexander 
and Darius, the conqueror, who had come within sight of 



100 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

the Persian host, having completed his arrangements for 
the morrow's conflict, retired to rest. Early in the morn- 
ing Parmenio awoke him, and expressed surprise at his 
sleeping so quietl}' when such vast issues were at stake. 
" You seem as calm," said he, " as if you had fought the 
battle and gained the victory." 

" I have done* so," replied Alexander ; " I consider the 
whole work done, when we have gained access to Darius, 
and forced him to give us battle." 

Alexander is thus described as he appeared at the head 
of the army on this important occasion. " He wore a 
short tunic, girt close around him, and over it a linen 
breastplate, strongl}' quilted. The belt by which the 
tunic was held was embossed with figures of beautiful 
workmanship. Upon his head was a helmet of polished 
steel, surmounted with a white plume. He wore also a 
neck-piece of steel, ornamented with precious stones ; he 
carried a shield, lance, and sword." 

The Persians employed elephants in their wars. They 
also had chariots, armed with long scythes. But the terri- 
ble Macedonian phalanx, with columns of infantry and 
flying troops of horsemen on either side, cut through the 
mighty mass of their enemies with irresistible force. The 
elephants turned and fled. The Persian troops were 
routed, and Darius himself was obliged to flee. Alex- 
ander went to Babylon, where he was received as a con- 
queror. The storehouse of the Persian treasures were at 
Susa, a strong city east of Babylon. Alexander then 
marched to Susa, and took possession of the vast treas- 
ures collected there. Besides these treasures, Alexander 
here found a number of trophies which had been brought 
from Greece by Xerxes, some hundred j^ears before. Alex- 
ander sent them all back to Greece. He then proceeded 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 101 

in a triumphal march to Persepolis, the great Persian capi- 
tal. Here Alexander exhibited another striking instance 
of wicked weakness. He was giving a great banquet to his 
officers. Among the women at this feast was a vain and 
foolish woman named Thais. While the guests were half 
intoxicated from the effects of wine, this Thais, seizing a 
burning torch and waving it above her head, proposed 
that they should set fire to the great palace of Persepolis, 
which had been built by Xerxes, and amuse themselves 
by watching the imposing conflagration. Alexander, 
flushed with wine, consented ; and the drunken guests 
sallied forth, alarming the inhabitants with their boister- 
ous shouts and flaming torches. Arriving at the magni- 
ficent palace, they applied their torches, and the gorgeous 
structure was soon a frightful mass of lurid flames. Alex- 
ander, sobered b}^ the sublime and awful spectacle, re- 
pented of his wild folly. He ordered the fire to be 
extinguished ; but it was too late ; the infamous deed 
was done ; the grand old palace was a hopeless mass of 
ruins, and another blot, which never can be effaced, tar- 
nished the fame and character of Alexander. 

Notwithstanding Alexander's evil deeds, he was kind 
to his mother. He sent her rich presents after his con- 
quests ; and though she was proud and imperious, and 
made Antipater, whom Alexander had left in command 
in Macedon, much trouble, so that Antipater was forced 
to complain of her, Alexander said that a single tear of 
his mother's would outweigh ten thousand accusations 
against her. Olympias, however, did not repay his devo- 
tion with equal nobleness ; she wrote frequent letters to 
him full of petty fault-finding, and making unkind com- 
ments upon his officers and generals ; and thougli Alex- 
ander showed her respect, he evinced more love towards 



102 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

the mother of Darius, treating her and the captive children 
of his foe with the greatest kindness and consideration. 
After the battle of Arbela, while Alexander marched to 
Babylon and Susa, Darius had fled to Ecbatana. He was 
thus in one of the Persian royal palaces, while his family 
were with his conqueror at another. The wife of Darius 
had died before this time, while still a captive in the Gre- 
cian camp. Many of the forces of Darius had gone over 
to Alexander's side, about forty thousand remaining 
faithful to him. But among these seeming friends were 
treacherous foes. A general, names Bessus, formed the 
plan of seizing Darius, and making him a prisoner, and 
then taking the command of the army himself. If Alex- 
ander should be likely to conquer him, he would then try 
to save himself by giving up Darius. If, on the other 
hand, their forces should be successful, he would then get 
Darius out of his way by assassinating him, and usurping 
the throne. Bessus communicated his plans to many of 
the chief officers, who agreed to become parties in the 
plot. The Grecian soldiers in the Persian army revealed 
this conspiracy to Darius, but he would not believe in the 
treachery of his countrymen. As Alexander advanced, 
Darius had retreated from Ecbatana, and Alexander 
followed him. While halting for rest, a Persian noble- 
man came into the Macedonian camp, and informed Alex- 
ander that the enemies' forces were two days' march in 
advance. Bessus was in command, and Darius deposed, 
the plot having been successfully carried out. Alexander 
immediately set forward in pursuit of Bessus and his 
royal prisoner. Alexander had now been two years ad- 
vancing from Macedon into the heart of Asia, in pursuit 
of Darius. His conquest would not be complete until 
that monarch was captured. As soon as Bessus and the 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 103 

Persian army found that Alexander was close upon them, 
they attempted to hurry forward in the hope of escaping. 
Darius was in a chariot. The}' urged this chariot on, but 
it was too cumbersome for rapid flight. Bessus and his 
chief conspirators then called upon Darius to mount a 
horse and escape with them, leaving the rest of the army 
to its fate. Darius refused. Having become convinced 
of their treacher}', he said he would rather trust himself 
in the hands of Alexander than to such traitors as they. 
Bessus and his confederates, exasperated by this reply, 
thrust their spears into Darius' bod}^ as he sat in the 
chariot, and galloped away. Darius remained in his 
chariot, wounded and bleeding. His many sorrows had 
at last overwhelmed him. His kingdom was lost ; his 
beloved wife was in the grave ; his family were in captiv- 
ity ; his cities were sacked ; his palaces and treasures 
plundered ; and now, betrayed and abandoned, he was 
dying, slain by his treacherous countrymen, whom he 
had trusted as his friends. Alone, deserted by all the 
world, he, the once mighty monarch of vast dominions, 
now lay there, faint and bleeding, waiting the coming of 
death or his victorious conqueror. 

The Macedonians at last discovered the chariot in 
which Darius was lying pierced with spears. The floor 
of the chariot was covered with blood. They raised him 
a little, and he spoke ; he called for water. A Macedo- 
nian soldier went to get some ; others hurried to find Alex- 
ander, and bring him to the spot where his long-pursued 
enem}' was dying. When the soldier returned with the 
water, Darius received the drink, and then said to those 
about him, " That he charged them to tell Alexander that 
he died in his debt, though he had never obliged him ; 
that he gave him a multitude of thanks for the great 



104 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

humanity he had exercised towards his wife, mother, and 
his children, whose lives he had not only spared, but treated 
them with the greatest consideration and care, and had 
endeavored to make them happy ; that he besought the 
gods to give victory to his arms, and make him monarch 
of the universe ; that he thought it was not necessary to 
entreat him to revenge his murder, as this was the com- 
mon cause of kings." Then taking Polystratus, one of 
the Macedonians who had brought him the desired w\ater 
to relieve his agonizing thirst, he continued, "Give Alex- 
ander thy hand, as I give thee mine, and carry him in my 
name the only pledge I am able to offer, — of my grati- 
tude and affection." Saying these words, Darius breathed 
his last. 

Alexander, coming up a moment after, was shocked at 
the spectacle before him, and wept bitterly. He then 
spread his own military cloak over tlie dead monarch. 
Having ordered the body to be embalmed, it was then 
enclosed in a costly coffin, and sent to Sysigambis, the 
mother of Darius, in order that it might be buried with 
the ceremonies usually paid to Persian monarchs, and be 
entombed with his ancestors. 

The Persian generals under Bessus now resolved to 
betra}' him, as he had betrayed his master. They sent 
word to Alexander that they would deliver him into his 
hands if he w^ould send a small force to the place where 
they designated. Accordingly this command was en- 
trusted to a Macedonian officer named Ptolemy, who 
found Bessus in a small walled town, to which he had 
fled for refuge. 

When Bessus was brought to Alexander, that monarch 
ordered the prisoner to be publicly scourged, and then 
caused his face to be mutilated in a manner customary in 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 



105 



those days when a criminal was condemned to be stamped 
with a perpetual mark of infamy. Alexander then sent 
the traitor as a second present to Sysigambis, to be dealt 
with as her revenge for the death of Darius might dictate. 
After being terribly tortured, the miserable Bessus paid 
the last penalty of his crimes by a most shocking death, 
inflicted upon him by Sysigambis, to avenge her m^'urdered 



son. 



Alexander was now twenty-six years of age. He was 
now the undisputed master of all western Asia. His 
wealth was boundless, his power was supreme, but his 
character was fearfully- demoralized. He lived in the 
palaces of the Persian kings, and gave himself up to all 
sorts of vices. He spent his time in drunken debauch- 
eries. The strong sentiment of love and respect .with 
which he had formerly inspired all around him was gone, 
and conspiracies and treason prevailed. When the sus- 
picions of Alexander were aroused, he put to death some 
of his most trusted officers. 

At last there was a conspiracy, in which Philotas, the 
son of the faithful Parmenio, was imi)licated. Being 
arrested and put to the torture, Philotas accused his 
father, in the hopes of saving himself. Though there was 
no evidence against that trusty general, Alexander caused 
them both to be put to death. 

The death of Parmenio and his son, in this violent 
manner, raised much unfavorable feeling against Alex- 
ander. 

Another case exemplifies the wicked deeds of Alex- 
ander when under the influence of wine, and puffed up 
with vain-glorious pride. 

One of his oldest and most faithful generals, named 
Clitus, was present at one of the frequent banquets given 



106 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

by Alexander. That monarch, excited with wine, had 
been boastfully recounting his own exploits, and had 
spoken disparagingly of those of his father Philip in com- 
parison. Clitus, also heated witli wine, began to praise 
Philip, under whom he had fought; and then growing 
bolder, he upbraided Alexander for the death of Par- 
menio. Alexander, frenzied with wine and rage, seized 
a javelin, hurled it at Clitus, and struck him down, saying, 
" Go then, and join Philip and Parmenio." Alexander, 
as soon as he came to himself, was overwhelmed with 
remorse and shame. He could not, however, restore Cli- 
tus to life, or remove the disgrace from his own name. 

Alexander continued for two or three years his expedi- 
tions and conquests in Asia. He penetrated into India as 
far as the banks of the Indus. But liis soldiers refused to 
go further. He made an address to his army, but he 
could not change their decision. At last one of his officers 
said to him : — 

" We have done all for you that it was possible for man 

to do. We have crossed seas and land. We have marched 

to the end of the world, and you are now meditating the 

conquest of another, by going in search of new Indias, 

unknown to the Indians themselves. Such a thought may 

be worthy of your courage and resolution, but it surpasses 

ours, and our strength still more. Look at tiiese ghastly 

faces, and these bodies covered with wounds and scars. 

Remember liow numerous we were when first we set out 

with you, and see how few of us remain. The few who 

have escaped so many toils and dangers have neither 

courage nor strength to follow you any further. They all 

long to revisit their country and their homes, and to enjoy 

for the remainder of their lives the fruits of all their toils. 

Forsive them these desires so natural to man." 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 107 

Alexander was bitterly disappointed, but found himself 
obliged to relinquish further conquest. He returned to 
Babylon, where his triumphal entrance was a scene of 
magnificence and gorgeous splendor. 

But his life soon evinced the hopeless degradation into 
which he had fallen. He not only indulged in vice him- 
self, but encouraged others to follow his evil example. 
He would offer prizes at his banquets to those who would 
drink the most, thus causing forty deaths at one of his 
entertainments. 

Alexander now entered upon a life of the most effemi- 
nate luxury and profligate dissipation. He separated 
himself more and more from his old Macedonian friends, 
and delighted in Persian associates. He married Statira, 
the eldest daughter of Darius, and gave the youngest 
daughter to his particular friend Hephsestion, who was 
his chosen companion in all his drunken revels. 

Alexander's habits of intoxication and vice rapidly in- 
creased. On one occasion, after he had spent a whole 
night in drinking and carousing, some of the guests pro- 
posed that they should begin a second banquet instead 
of retirino;. 

Alexander half intoxicated, agreed. There were twenty 
present at this new feast. Alexander, to show how much 
he was able to drink, pledged each one separately, and 
then all together. 

There was a very large cup, called the bowl of Her- 
cules, which he now called for, and having filled it to the 
brim, he drank it off, and again filled the huge bowl, and 
again drank the entire contents. His strength soon failed 
him, and he sank to the floor. 

They bore him away to his apartments. A violent fever 
followed this terrible debauch, which his physicians in 



108 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

vain tried to allay. At last, finding he must die, he drew 
his signet ring off from his finger ; this was the token that 
he felt all was over. He handed the ring to one of his 
friends, saying, " When I am gone, take my body to the 
temple of Jupiter Ammon, and inter it there." 

Being asked to whom he left his kingdom, he replied : 
"To the most worthy." Thus died Alexander the Great, 
at the age of thirty- two. 

Preparations were now made to convey his body with 
royal pomp to its last resting-place, in accordance with 

his orders. 

A very large and magnificent funeral carriage was built. 
"The spokes of the wheels were overlaid with gold, and the 
axles were adorned upon the outside with massive golden 
ornaments. The platform, or floor, of the carriage was 
eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide. Upon this there 
was erected a magnificent pavilion, supported by Ionic 
columns, profusely ornamented, both within and without, 
witli purple and gold. The interior of the pavilion was 
resplendent with gems and precious stones. 

"A throne was raised in the centre of the platform, 
richly carved and gilded. It was empty ; but the crowns 
of the various nations over which Alexander had ruled 
were hung upon it. At the foot of the throne was the 
coflfin, made of soUd gold, containing the remains of the 
great conqueror. The arms of Alexander were placed 
between the throne and the coflfin. 

" On the four sides of the carriage were sculptured fig- 
ures representing Alexander. There were Macedonian 
soldiers, Persian squadrons, elephants of India, troops of 
horse, and various other emblems of the departed hero's 
conquests, sculptured upon this magnificent funeral car- 
riage. Around the pavilion was a network of golden lace, 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 109 

to which bells were attached, which tolled mournfully as 
the carriage moved slowl}' along. Sixt3'-four mules, se- 
lected for their great size, drew this ponderous car. Their 
harness was mounted with gold and enriched with precious 
stones." 

Notwithstanding all this gorgeous pomp, the body of 
Alexander nev^er reached its first destination. Ptolemy, 
the officer, to whom Egypt was given in the division of 
Alexander's empire, came forth to meet this solemn pro- 
cession, and preferring that the body of Alexander should 
be buried in the city of Alexandria, it was interred there, 
and an imposing monument was erected over his grave. 
This monument is said to have remained standins: for fif- 
teen hundred years, though no remains of it are to be 
found. 

The most fitting comment upon the life and character 
of Alexander the Great will be found in these brief words 
of Napoleon Bonaparte, who said of Alexander: "He 
commenced bis career with the mind of Trajan, but closed 
it with the heart of Nero and the morals of Heliogabalus." 



no JULIUS C^SAR. 



JULIUS C^SAR. 

100-44 B.C. 

" Tlie elements 
So mix'd in liim, that Nature might stand up 
And say to all the world, This was a man ! " 

Shakespeare. 

THERE was wild tumult in the ancient city of Rome. 
Tlie populace thronged the streets, carrying stones 
and bludgeons. Armed troops hurried hither and thither. 
The members of the Senate, a sort of House of Lords, 
were assembled in confusion ; and their blanched faces 
denoted the terror which rendered them powerless to help. 
Several of the principal citizens had been murdered, and 
the other Roman lords, or patricians, knew not how soon 
their doom might come. But who was their terrible foe? 
Had some wild barbarian horde invaded their land and 
taken possession of their proud and magnificent city? 
Why did the nobles and men of rank tremble ; and why 
were the common people roused to this wild outburst of 
fury ? 

It was no barbarian enemj', but civil discord amongst 
themselves, which thus filled the streets with murderers 
and the patricians with terror. Two powerful rivals were 
fighting for the possession of the Eternal City, which, at 
that time, was mistress of the world. 

Marius, the plebian, or champion of the common peo- 
ple, had roused the populace to fight against Sylla, the 
patrician, who had been absent with his army in Ital3\ 



-^, 



A^- 



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^c^ 



j)(u][Loyi ©^i^[^n 



JULIUS C^SAR. Ill 

SjHla had been appointed by the Senate to command the 
iorces which were to wage war with Mithridates, a 
powerful Asiatic monarch. But during his absence, his 
enemy, Marius, had contrived to have this appointment 
revoked, and to gain for himself this coveted command. 
Two officers, called tribunes, were sent to Sylla's camp, 
to inform him of this advantage which his rival had gained 
over him. Sylla killed the two officers for daring to 
bring him such a message, and immediately marched 
towards Rome. 

Marius, in retaliation, caused some of Sylla's friends in 
the city to be put to death, and with his bands of soldiers 
endeavored to resist the entrance of Sylla and his army 
])y throwing stones upon the troops from the roofs of the 
houses as the}' entered the city. Sylla then ordered every 
house to be set on fire, from which missiles had been 
thrown, and thus the helpless citizens were endangered 
by lawless and infuriated mobs on the one side, and re- 
lentless flames on the other. Marius was conquered, and 
obliged to flee for his life. He was an old man of seventy 
years of age. The Senate declared him a public enemy, 
and ofl^ered a large sum for his head. Alone and friend- 
less, Marius wandered from place to place, enduring the 
greatest privations, and encountering many dangers, till 
at last he crossed the Mediterranean Sea, and took refuge 
in a poor hut among the ruins of ancient Carthage. 
Surely it would seem that his days of conquest were 
over. Alone, starving, helpless, old, and banished, with 
a heavy price set upon his head, his fortunes seemed 
indeed hopeless. 

Leaving this fallen champion in his hut, amidst the 
ruins of a past power which could only remind him of 
his own hopeless prospects, we must return to the city 
of Rome, and look upon another scene. 



112 JULIUS C^SAR. 

A religions procession is wending its way through the 
famous Forum. This Forum was a magnificent square, 
surrounded by splendid edifices and adorned with sculp- 
tures and statues and many gorgeous trophies of past 
victories. There were vast colonnades forming covered 
porticoes, where the populace assembled and where courts 
of justice were held. This Forum was constantly embel- 
lished with new monuments, temples, statues, arches, and 
columns by the successful generals, as they returned in 
triumpli from foreign campaigns. Here the various ora- 
tors delivered their famous orations which inflamed the 
people to arms, or moved them to wild outbursts of en- 
thusiastic applause in favor of some successful candidate, 
or calmed their boisterous tumult into silent and breath- 
less attention to the impassioned and eloquent words 
which fell from the lii)S of these intellectual monarchs 
over the minds of their less gifted countrymen. It is night 
now in this great public square, and as the procession of 
priests and attendants slowly pass beneath a row of 
majestic colonnades and enter one of the temples, we 
note the face and figure of the foremost one. He is 
scarcely more than a boy, but he wears the purple robe 
called Imna, and a conical mitre known as the apex, which 
mark his distinguished rank as holding the office of Fla- 
men Dialis, or High Priest of Jupiter. This youth, 
seventeen years of age, is tall and fair, and though slen- 
der in form, is handsome and noble in bearing. He is 
descended from patrician families of high rank and proud 
position ; and as he passes within the portal of the sacred 
temple, the beholder would involuntarily cast upon him 
an admiring glance, and if a stranger, would surely inquire 
who was this comely, noble youth who so early in life was 
distinguished by so high an office and royal bearing. 



JULIUS CAESAR. 113 

Again we enter the Forum, but it is now high noon. A 
noted orator has ascended the pulpit, where public speak- 
ers were accustomed to stand when addressing the assem- 
blies. This pulpit was ornamented with brazen beaks of 
ships, which had been taken by the Romans in their many 
wars. Such a beak was named a rostrum, and the pulpit 
so adorned was called the Rostra^ or the Beaks, — often 
termed in modern books a rostium. As the orator of 
the day began to speak, a youth might have been seen 
pressing through the crowd, and listening with wrapt at- 
tention to the eloquent words which fell from the speaker's 
lips. As the burst of impassioned appeal became more 
persuasive, the dark eyes of the youth flashed with re- 
sponsive fire, and his cheek glowed with a flush of kind- 
ling enthusiasm. Though he wears now the robes of a 
Roman patrician, we recognize him as the same person 
whom we beheld at midnight entering the temple in the 
attire of a High Priest of Jupiter. 

Again the scene changes to midnight, but it is not in 
the Roman Forum, but at a grand feast in one of the 
sumptuous palaces of a Roman lord. Amidst a party of 
gay and joyous 3'oung men, seemingly intent only upon 
luxurious pleasures, we see once more the face and figure 
of this same youth who has already so attracted our inter- 
est and admiration. Priest, student, devotee of pleasure, 
little did his companions or acquaintances imagine that this 
young Julius Caesar, patrician born, but at the same time 
personally inclined towards the plebeian party, would be- 
come Julius Caesar, future Master of Rome, and therefore 
ruler of nearly all of the then known world. This Julius 
Caesar became the greatest hero of Roman history, and 
ranks as one of the three heroes of ancient days, — Alex- 
ander of the Greeks, Hannibal of the Carthaginians, and 
Julius Caesar of the Romans, forming the famous trio. 



114 JjrLIlJS CyESAR. 

Again we must return to the old exile among the ruins 
of Carthage. One day he is awakened from his hopeless 
despoudenc}' by wild rumors from Rome. His rival and 
enemy, Sylla, had equipped a fleet and sailed away to 
wage war wath Mithridates. The friends of Marius now 
i-ally again, and the old exile is brought back from Africa 
in triumph and given the command of a large arm3\ As 
he pretended to be the friend of the common people, they 
flocked to his standard. Vast multitudes of revolted 
slaves, outlaws, and desperadoes joined his forces, Avhich 
now advanced toward Rome. As soon as Marius oained 
possession of the city, he began a dreadful work of mur- 
der and destruction. He beheaded one of the consuls, 
and ordered his head to be set up as a spectacle of horror 
in the public square. Blood ran like a red river in the 
streets of Rome. Patricians of the highest rank and 
station were everywhere seized without warning, without 
trial, and put to torture and death. 

It is midnight in the great city, and under cover of the 
darkness, the evil deeds of blood-thirsty men, fired ])y 
hatred and lawless ambition, are renewed with fresh 
ferocity. 

Against his bitterest enemies Marius contrived special 
modes of execution, in order to wreak upon them his 
insatiable revenge for his exile, and consequent suiferings 
and privations. 

See ! a party of men, composed of soldiers, and an en- 
furiated mob of people are dragging a lord of noble rank 
up to the top of a high rock, known as the Tarpeian 
Rock, from the summit of which state criminals were 
hurled down the precipice, upon sharj:) rocks below, where 
they were left to die in awful torture. This patrician, or 
Roman noble, had incurred the especial animosity of 



JULIUS C^JSA H. 



115 



Marias, and so hy his orders, the proud okl man is torn 
from family and friends; and without trial, with the 
senate i)owerless to help, he is dragged here at midnight 
to suirer the ignominious and terrible death of a state 
criminal. This noted Tari)eian Rock still stands in 
Rome, and it received its name from this ancient storv. 
In early times there was a Roman girl, named Tarpeia, 
living in the ancient city, when it was besieged by an 
army from a neighboring country. The soldiers of the 
besieging forces wore golden bracelets upon their arms, 
as well as shields ; and upon demanding that Tarpeia 
should open the gates to them, she declared that if they 
would give her, " those things they wore upon their arms,'' 
she would comply with their demands. She meant, of 
course, tlieir bracelets ; but not knowing the word' Ijy 
which they were designated, she brought upon herself 
a fearful doom. The soldiers agreed to grant her desire, 
and so she opened to them the gates. As they passed 
within, they threw their shields upon the poor girl, in 
proud derision, instead of giving her the coveted^race- 
lets, exclaiming, '^ Here are the things we wear upon our 
arms." Tarpeia was crushed to death beneath the 
weight of the ponderous shields ; and so the spot where 
she fell became a rock of blood, and was ever afterwards 
called, in remembrance of her sad fate, the Tarpeian 
Rock. There is a fuither legend connected with this spot, 
for some of the ignorant people believe that in the interior 
of one of the many caverns, which have been found per- 
forating this rock, Tarpeia still sits, enchanted, covered 
with gold and jewels. But should any one attempt to 
find her, he is fated to lose his way, and never to return 
from his reckless adventure. But the ])loodv triumph of 
Marius was of short duration. He was seized with a 



II g JULIUS CuESAR. 

fatal sickness, and the cruel tyrant was obliged to meet 
an enemv he could not conquer. Deatli meted out to hnn 
some of the horrible torments he had inflicted upon others, 
as he died in delirious ravings, haunted by the presence 
of phantom foes. His son Marius assumed liis fatlier's 
power ; but Sylla, having returned from the Asiatic wars, 
and in his turn taking possession of the city of Rome, 
the followers of Marius were put to death with the same 
ferocity with which they had murdered others, and Sylla 
even exceeded the bloody deeds which had so brutally 
been performed by his hated rival. Thus the city of 
Rome was again plunged into wild confusion, and the 
scenes of murder and massacre, with all their shocking 
horrors, were re -en acted. 

It is at this time that the young Julius Caesar first 
becomes a prominent figure in that bloody drama. Al- 
thoucrh Julius Csesar was a patrician by birth, he was 
favorable to the plebian party. The elder Marius had 
married his aunt, and Citsar himself had married a 
daughter of Cinna, who was four times consul, and was 
a powerful and ardent partisan of the party of Marius. 
Julius Caisar, although at this time a very young man, 
was too prominent a person to be overlooked by Sylla, 
in his vengeance against the plebian party. The friends 
of Julius C*sar tried to plead his youth with Sylla, 
saying that surely such a mere boy could do no harm. 
But Svlla had marked the aspiring spirit of the young 
nobleman, who with all his love of gayety and pleasure 
had not neglected his studies, and who was already gam- 
ing the dangerous reputation of an eloquent orator. Sylla 
now demanded that Julius Caesar should divorce his wife 
Corneha, the daughter of Cinna. Caesar absolutely re- 
fused, partly from devotion to his wife, and partly from 




JULIUS C/ESAR. 
(From Photograph of Bust in Capitol Rome.) 



JULIUS C^SAR. jjy 

.1 proud indomitable spirit, which thus early was a promi 
nent trait in his character, and which made him brave 
any danger rather than allow himself to be controlled 
Knowing that punishment for his refusal to comply with 
the commands of Sylla would be destruction, Ca3sar fled 
from Rome. Sylla deprived him of his rank and titles 
confiscated the property of his wife and his own estates' 
and placed his name on the list of public enemies. 

Cffisar was now a fugitive and exile. He was also 
suffering from intermittent fever, and was obliged to Jeek 
some new place of refuge each day, as a price was set 
upon his head. He was at one time seized by a cen- 
turion, but Caesar offered him a bribe sufficient to secure 
his release. After various adventures, he wandered into 
Asia Minor, and coming to the kingdom of Bithynia he 
joined himself to the court of the king Nicomedes, Lnd 
remained some time in that countrv. After leavino- 
Bithynia, Julius CaDsar, while sailing near the isle o'f 
Pharmacusa, was taken prisoner by some pirates from a 
inountainous country called Cilicia. These Cilician pirates 
were half sailors and half mountaineers. They built swift 
galleys, and made excursions over the Mediterranean 
Sea for conquest and plunder. C.Tsar asked the pirates 
what sum they demanded for his ransom. They repHed 
twenty talents, whereupon Caesar laughed at sucl^a paltry 
sum being considered sufficient for his ransom, and told 
them they evidently did not know who he was. He then 
declared he would give them fifty talents, and forthwith 
sent all of his companions and attendants to the shore to 
go to the cities where he was known, and secure the sum 
required. Meanwhile he boldly remained among these 
rough men, with no attendants but a phvsichau and 
two servants. Caesar now assumed command over his 



jjg JULIUS C^SAR. 

very captors, giving orders, and demanding quiet ^-l^en he 
wished to sleep. He joined them m the>r sports, and 
wrote and read orations to them as though he was hen- 
ruler His boldness and skill elicited their profound ad- 
miration. The pirates one day asked him what he would 
do to them if he should ever capture them after obtammg 
las own release. He replied laughingly that he would 
crucifv them all. This, though a seeming jest, was well 
fulfilled. His .attendants, having returned with the ransom 
monev. Julius Caesar was released. He proceeded immedi- 
atelv'to Miletus, equipped a small fleet, then sailed back to 
the place where the ships of the pirates still lay at anchor, 
and having attacked them, he recovered the ransom 
monev, seized their ships, and took all the men prisoners 
He earned his captives to the land, and having cut all 
their throats he hung their dead bodies upon crosses, in 
fuUilment of his threat. _ 

Jnhus Ci^sar then went to Rhodes, where his former 
teacher ApoUonius, a nole<l philosopher and rhetoncan, 
resided. Cicero was also one of the pupils of this philos- 
o„her Cssar at lenglli obtained pardon from bylla, 
throuol. the intercession of the vestal virgins and some of 
l„s fiTends. When Sylla at last yielded to their impor- 
tunitv, he exclaimed, " Your suit is granted; but know 
that "this man. for whose safety you are so extreme y 
anxious, will some day or other be tlie ruin of the par y 
of the nobles, in defence of which you are leagued witl, 
me, for in this one Caesar you will find many a Marius. 
SvUa had since died, and though the aristocratical party 
were still in the ascendency, the party of Marius were 
recoverino- somewhat from their overthrow. 

Julius Caesar now returned to Rome, and boldly espoused 
the popular cause. His first public act was the arraign- 



JULIUS CASHAR. Ijn 

ment of Dolabella, governor of the province of Macedonia 
Wlieu tlie tnal came on Ciesar appeared in the Forum 
and gamed great applause for his eloquence and darino' 
Dolabella was defended by noted orators, and was a" 
quitted by the Senate. But Julius C^sar had displayed 
his marvellous powers of eloquence, which immodiatelv 
gave lum great renown. 

Ca.sar now devoted himself to public speaking in the 
I'onnn and acquired nu,ch celebrity. He pronounced 
a splendid panegyric upon the wife of Marius at lier funer- 
al ; and also upon his wife Cornelia, who died soon after 
Caesar now became ambitious of securing public offices 
and lavished large sums in shows and spectacles to 
amuse the people and secure tiieir votes. He thus be- 
came deeply involved in debt, but he was still successful 
'11 nsmg from one office to still higher positions, until he 
obtained that of quwstor in the province of Spain. This 
w.as the secoiul office in command, the first officer beiu- 
ca led a prmtor. During his absence in Spam, Caesar 
beheld a statue of Alexander the Great, which adorned 
cue of the public buildings in the city of Cadiz, or Hades 
as it was then called. C=«sar was now about th.rty-five 
years of age, and reflecting upon the conquests of Alex- 
ander, who had died when only thirty-two vears of a<.e, 
Caesar sighed o^■er liis own tardy accomi)lishment of his 
lofty ambitions, and leaving his post, returned to Rome, 
determined to seek higher honors. 

He was chosen mdile by the people. He now had 
charge of the public ediflees of the city, and of the games 
and spectacles which were exhibited m them. The ar- 
rangements made by him for the amusement of the peo- 
ple were on the most magnificent and extravagant scale. 
He exhibited three hundred and twenty pair of gladiators, 



J 20 JULIUS C^SAR. 

and he made great additions to the public buildings. He 
now endeavored to have Egypt assigned to him as a prov- 
ince ; but the senate resisted this plan, and Caesar was 
obUged to abandon it. About this time, Caesar obtained 
a triumph over the senate, who were very jealous of his 
increasing power. He replaced the statues and trophies 
of Maruis in the capital, which had been taken down and 
destroyed by the order of Sylla when he returned to 
power. In their place, Caesar had ordered magnificent 
new ones to be made, and put up secretly in the night. 
The senate endeavored to take them down again, but the 
people rallied in such vast numbers, as to prevent the 
work of destruction, and Caesar was triumphant. 

A dangerous conspiracy, headed by the notorious Cati- 
line, was'' now discovered, and several conspirators were 
arrested. It was when the senate was debating whether 
they should be put to death, that Caesar made his noted 
speech which was replied to so hotly by Cato. 

Caesar was by some accused of being cognizant of this 
plot, if he were not indeed a participant. 

After the death of Cornelia, Caesar had married Pom- 
peia, but he afterwards divorced her. Julius Cresar now 
beoan to plan for a still higher office, and upon the death 
of Metellus, the chief pontiff, Ca?sar solicited the office. 

He was now so heavily involved in debt, that he faced 
ruin if defeated, or glory if elected. When the day of 
election came, Caesar parted with his mother, saying, — 
'' You will see me this day either chief pontiff or an exile." 
But he succeeded in gaining the election. Having ob- 
tained this added power, he desired to procure the posi- 
tion of prcEtor m Spain. This he also secured, but so 
large were his debts, that Crassus, a man of immense 
wealth, was, by Caesar's promises of using his political 



JULIUS C^SAR. 121 

power in his behalf, persuaded to lend him the sum needed 
to satisfy his creditors. 

Caesar was very successful in his province in Spain, 
and he returned in a short time with military glory, and 
with money sufficient to pay his debts, and furnish fresh 
supplies for further bribes to secure still higher positions. 
He now aspired to the office of consul, which was the 
highest office in the Roman state. 

At this time, Pompey was the military idol of the people, 
and Crassus, powerful on account of his vast wealth, was 
Pompey's bitter enemy. Ciiisar conceived the plan of 
reconciling these two dangerous foes, and availing himself 
of the aid of both to further his own ambitious projects. 

Caesar was successful in this plan, and they then formed 
a triple league, binding themselves to promote the political 
elevation of each other. Having secured such powerful 
adherents, Caesar now pushed his claims for consulsliip. 
He chose a man of great wealth, named Lucceius, to be 
associated with himself, who agreed to pay all the ex- 
penses of the election, for the sake of the honor of beino- 
consul with Caesar. But the political enemies of Caesar, 
knowing that they could not defeat his election, deter- 
mined to place Bibulus, in the place of Lucceius, as the 
associate of Caesar. Accordingly they raised as much 
money to expend for Bibulus as Lucceius should employ. 
The result was the election of Caesar and Bibulus as the 
two consuls. But having entered upon the duties of that 
office, Caesar so completely ignored Bibulus, and assumed 
so entirely the whole control of the consular power, that 
Bibulus retired to his house in chagrin and mortification, 
and allowed Caesar to have his own way. Two consuls 
were always required by law, and so the wags of the city, 
in speaking of Caisar's consulship, instead of saying, ^' In 



122 JULIUS C^SAR. 

the year of Caesar and Bibiilns, consuls," according to the 
usual form, would often say, " Jn the year of JuUus and 
Ctesar, consuls," ignoring the name of Bibulus, and taking 
the two names of Csesar to denote his supreme rule. 

Caesar's ambition was not yet satisfied. He had secured 
the highest place in the state, and now he aspired to mili- 
tary glory and foreign conquest. Having obtained the 
command of an array, he entered upon a campaign in the 
heart of Europe, which he continued for eight years. 

The large tract of country now known as Northern 
Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and p:ngland, was 
then spoken of as Gaul. The part on the Italian side of 
the Alps was called Cisalpine Gaul, and that which lay 
])eyond was termed Transalpine Gaul. 

Cflesar now plnccd liimself at the head of nn army of 
three Roman legions, and set out for Gaul. The first 
battle he fought was with the German king Ariovistus. 
Cj^sar was victorious, and the Germans were put in com- 
plete subjection. Other provinces of Gaul now submitted 
without resistance, and those who determined to league 
together to resist this new military power were soon 
brought to submission. 

One of the most interesting of the various excursions 
made by Cffisar during tiiese eight years was his expedi- 
tion into Great Britain. 

When CcTsar arrived on the northern shores of France, 
he began to inquire of all the travelling merchants whom 
he met, and who in those days iourneyed from one nation 
to another to buy and sell goods, about the best manner 
of crossing the channel, and regarding the people on the 
English side of the water. But the merchants could give 
him little information, and so he fitted out a galley, manned 
with many oarsmen, and placing it under the command of 




C.i;SAK IN GAUL. 



I 



JULIUS C^SAR. 123 

an officer, he directed him to cross the channel and dis- 
cover the best harbors to land on the other side, and then 
to return and report. This officer was gone five days, and 
upon his return, Ct\?sar determined to transport his troops 
across the channel. C?esar had collected a large number 
of sailiug vessels upon which he embarked his forces, 
and upon a given day, at one o'clock m the morning, the 
fleet set sail. 

The Britons had in the meantime learned of C<Tsar's in- 
tended invasion, and they collected in vast numbers to 
guard the shore. 

When the Roman fleet approached the land, the cliffs 
were everywhere lined with troops of Britons, and every 
available point was well guarded. 

C{\?sar now proceeded with his fleet along the shore, 
the Britons following on the land until a level plain was 
reached. Here Cjvsar determined to attempt to disem- 
bark. A dreadful struggle ensued. The Britons plunged 
into the water, and the Romans shot darts and arrows 
from the decks of the vessels upon the assailants of their 
comrades, who were endeavoring to make the landing. 
The Britons were at last driven back, and Caesar succeeded 
in obtaining possession of the shore. 

These campaigns of Caesar, in a military point of view, 
were a succession of magnificent exploits. The people at 
Rome were unbounded in their enthusiastic praise, and 
decreed him triumph after triumph, and were prepared to 
welcome him with high honors when he should return. 
Plutarch says of these eight years of foreign conquest, 
that Caisar took eight hundred cities, conquered three 
luindred nations, fought pitched battles, at separate 
times, with three millions of men, took one million of 
them prisoners, and killed another million on the field. 



124 JULIUS CAESAR. 

From a humane standpoint, however, what a fearful 
destruction of human lives, to satisfy the insatiable ambi- 
tion of one man. How much more desirable would have 
been the fame of blessing, rather than destroying and 
injuring three millions of his fellow men. The time was 
now drawing near for Ca3sar's return to Rome. During 
his absence a dangerous rival had become the idol of the 
fickle people. After the death of Pompey's wife Julia, 
who was the daughter of Julius Csesar, the former alliance 
]>etween these two powerful rivals had been broken, and 
they were now open foes. While Caesar was absent in 
Gaul, he had not neglected to endeavor to retain his 
hold upon the populace of Rome. He had distributed 
vast sums for the adornment of the city. He expended 
over four million dollars in purchasing ground for the en- 
largement of the Forum ; and when he heard of the death 
of his daughter Julia, the wife of Pompey, he ordered her 
funeral to be celebrated with gorgeous splendor. He dis- 
tributed corn in immense quantities among the people, 
and sent home many captives to be trained as gladiators 
to amuse the populace in the theatres. Men were as- 
tounded at the magnitude of these vast expenditures ; but 
Pompey was, nevertheless, fast securing the heart of the 
people. Pompey, in his vanity, imagined that he was so 
far above Caesar that he need feel no solicitude at the 
return of his rival, and therefore took no precautions to 
resist any hostile designs. Caesar had now advanced 
toward the Rubicon, which was a little stream that formed 
the boundary line between the north of Italy, which was 
a Roman province called Hither Gaul, and the immediate 
jurisdiction of the city of Rome. 

Generals commanding in Gaul were never allowed to 
pass this river with an army. Hence, to cross the Rubi- 




THE LANDING OF JULIUS C.«;SAR IN BRITAIN. 



Z.r.]ij,Uint,iCuiff 



\Jv: 



% 



JULIUS C^SAR. 125 

con with an armed force, was rebelliou and treason. 
When Caesar arrived at the farther shore of this small 
but significant stream, he halted at a small town called 
Ravenna, and established his headquarters there. Pom- 
pey now sent to him to demand the return of a legion he 
had lent him when they were friends. Cfesar returned 
the legion immediately, adding some of his own troops to 
show his indifference to the size of his own force. 

In the meantime, the partisans of Caesar and Pompey 
in the city of Rome, grew more threatening in their strug- 
gles. The friends of Caesar demanded that he should be 
elected consul. The friends of Pompey replied that 
Caesar must first resign the command of his army, and 
come to Rome and present himself as a candidate in the 
character of a private citizen, as the constitution of the 
state required. Cassar replied that if Pompey would lay 
down his arms, he would also do so ; but otherwise, it 
was unjust to require it of him. This privilege he de- 
manded as a recompense for the services he had rendered 
to the state. A large part of the people sided with Cae- 
sar ; but the partisans of Pompey, with the inflexible 
Cato at their head, withstood the demand. The city 
was much excited over the impending conflict. Pompey 
displayed no fear, and urged the Senate to resist all of 
Caesar's claims, saying, that if Caesar should presumptu- 
ously dare to march with his forces to Rome, he could 
raise troops enough to subdue him by merely stamping 
on the ground. Caesar meanwhile had been quietly mak- 
ing his preparations at Ravenna. It was his policy to 
move as privately as possible. Accordingly, he sent 
some cohorts to march secretly to the banks of the river, 
and encamp there, while he employed himself in his usual 
occupation. He had established a fencing school, and on 



120 JULIUS C.^SAR. 

the very eve of his departure he went as usual to this 
school, then feasted with his friends, going afterwards 
with them to a public entertainment. As soon as it was 
dariv enough, and the streets were deserted, he stole away 
with a few attendants. During the night, Caesar and his 
guides found themselves lost, and they wandered about 
until nearly break of day, when a peasant guided them to 
the shore, where he found his troops awaiting him. Hav- 
ino- arrived at the banks of the stream, Ciesar stood for 
some moments musing upon the step he was about to 
take. If he crossed that narrow stream retreat would 
be impossible. The story is told that a shepherd coming 
up took the trumpet from one of Caesar's trumpeters, 
and sounded a charge, marching rapidly over the bridge 
at the same time. "An omen! a prodigy !" exclaimed 
Csesar. " Let us march where we are called by such a 
divine intimation — Tlie die is cast ! " 

As soon as the bridge was crossed, Cissar called an 
assembly of his troops, and made an eloquent appeal to 
them, urging them to stand faithful to him, and promis- 
ing them large rewards should he be successful. The 
soldiers responded with enthusiastic applause. As Caesar 
advanced towards Rome, several towns surrendered to 
him without resistance. He met with but one opposition. 
The Senate had deposed Caesar from his command dur- 
ing the hot debates preceding his crossing of the Rubi- 
con, and had ai~)pointed Domitius to succeed him. That 
general had crossed the Apennines at the head of an 
army, and had reached the town of Corhnium. Caesar 
advanced and besieged him there. The town was soon 
captured ; and Caesar, to the surprise of everyone, who 
supposed he would wreak vengeance upon his foes, re- 
ceived the troops into his own service, and let Domitius 



JULIUS C^SAR. 127 

go free. News had now reached the city of Rome, of 
Caesar's crossing the Rubicon, and rapid advance. The 
Senate were terribly alarmed, and looked to Pompey in 
vain for help. Pompey himself was terrified, but could do 
nothing ; and the Senate then derisively called upon him 
to raise the promised army of which he had boasted, tell- 
ing him they thought it was high time to stamp with his 
feet, as he declared that by so doing he could secure a 
force large enough to defeat Caesar. Cato and many of 
the prominent men fled from the city. 

Pompey, calling upon all his partisans to follow him, 
set forth at night to retreat across the country towards 
the Adriatic Sea. 

Caesar was rapidly advancing toward Rome. As all 
supplies of money were cut off by his crossing the Rubi- 
con, which severed his connection with the government, 
his soldiers voted to serve him without pay. His treat- 
ment of Domitius was much applauded by the people. 
He himself says, in a letter written to a friend at the 
time, "I am glad that you approve of my conduct at 
Corfinium. I am satisfied that such a course is the best 
one for us to pursue, as by so doing we shall gain the 
good will of all parties, and thus secure a permanent vic- 
tory. Most conquerors have incurred the hatred of man- 
kind by their cruelties, and have all, in consequence of 
the enmity they have thus awakened, been prevented 
from long enjoying their power. Sylla was an exception, 
but his example of successful cruelty I have no disposi- 
tion to imitate. I will conquer after a new fashion, and 
fortify myself in the possession of the power I acquire by 
generosity and mercy." 

Caesar now pursued Pompey to Brundusium, whither 
Pompey had retreated. Caesar laid siege to the city, but 



J 28 JULIUS C^SAR. 

J>ompey secretly made preparations for embarking his 
troops He caused all the streets to be barricaded, except 
two which led to the landing, and in the darkness of the 
night, he began embarking his forces as fast as possible 
on board of transports already provided. C^sar was 
made aware of this fact, and his army qnickly bronght 
ladders and scaled the walls of the city, but the barricaded 
streets so impeded their progress through the darkness of 
the nio-ht, thatPompey and his troops succeeded in sailing 
away^ As Caesar had no ships, he continued his march to 
Rome, and entering the city without opposition, re-estab- 
lished the government and took control. After various 
subsequent campaigns in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Gaul, 
which resulted in completely subjugating these nations to 
his dominion, he commenced the pursuit of Pompey, across 

the Adriatic Sea. 

As Pompey had cleared the seas of every vessel which 
could aid him in his flight, Caesar had great difficulty in 
procuring even a sufficient number of galleys to transport 
a part of his army, and embarking with these he landed 
on the opposite shore, and sent back the galleys for the 
remainder of his forces, while he pursued Pompey with 
the troops already with him. Some of Pompey's generals 
intercepted a part of Caesar's galleys, and destroyed them ; 
the sea also, becoming very boisterous, the troops were 
afraid to embark, not being stimulated to courage by the 
presence and voice of Cffisar. Julius Caesar still pursued 
Pompey, who constantly retreated ; and the winter wore 
away with no decided battle, and leaving both armies in 
a suffering condition. At last, one stormy night, Caesar 
determined to embark upon a galley and return to the 
Italian side, and bring the remainder of his army over. 
Csesar disguised himself in a long cloak, with his head 



JULIUS CJS8AR. 129 

muffled in his mantle, and thus got aboard the galley and 
ordered the men to row him across. A violent wind arose, 
and the waves were so high that at last the rowers declared 
they could go no further ; Caesar then came forward, threw 
off his mantle, and exclaimed : " Friends, you have noth- 
ing to fear ; you are carrying Cagsar ! " Thus inspired 
the men put forth herculean efforts, but all to no purpose, 
and Caesar was obliged, reluctantly, to turn back. His 
army on the Itahan shore, however, hearing of this brave 
deed were inspired with new courage, and making another 
attempt, they were successful in joining Caesar, who, thus 
strengthened, planned for a vigorous attack in the spring. 
A parley had been held several times between the hostile 
hosts, but to no effect ; and many skirmishes and partial 
conflicts took place, but no decided battle. At one time, 
Pompey's troops so hemmed in the army of Caesar that 
his forces suffered for want of food, but his soldiers 
bravely made use of a sort of root which they dug from 
the ground, and made into a kind of bread, telling Caesar 
they would live upon the bark of trees rather than aban- 
don his cause. At length the army of Pompey was in 
turn hemmed in by Caesar's forces, and becoming verv 
desperate, on account of the distress occasioned by want 
of food and water, Pompey made some successful attacks 
upon Caesar's lines, and broke away from his enemy's 
grasp. 

At last, however, they came to open battle on the plain 
of Pharsalia. As Pompey's forces far outnumbered those 
of Caesar he felt confident of victory. "The hour at 
length arrived ; the charge was sounded by the trumpets, 
and Caesar's troops began to advance with loud shouts and 
great impetuosity toward Pompey's lines. There was a 
long and terrible struggle, but the forces of Pompey began 



130 JULIUS C^SAR. 

finally to give way. Notwithstanding the precautions 
which Pompey had taken to guard and protect the wing 
of his army which was extended toward the land, Caesar 
succeeded in turning his flank upon that side by driving 
off the cavalry, and destroying the archers and slingers ; 
and he was thus enabled to throw a strong force upon 
Pompey 's rear. The flight then soon became general, and 
a scene of dreadful confusion and slaughter ensued. The 
soldiers of Caesar's army, maddened with the insane rage 
which the progress of a battle never fails to awaken, 
and now excited to frenzy by the exultation of success, 
pressed on after the aff'righted fugitives, who trampled 
one upon another or fell pierced with the weapons of their 
assailants, filling the air with their cries of agony and 
their shrieks of terror." 

When Pompey perceived that all was lost he fled from 
the field, and having disguised himself as a common sol- 
dier, he retreated with a few attendants until he reached 
the Vale of Tempe in Thessaly. Here, in this picturesque 
spot, noted for its beautiful scenery, the fallen Pompey 
took his weary wa}' . Having at length reached the ^gean 
Sea, he took refuge in a fisherman's hut ; hearing still of 
Caesar's pursuit he did not dare to rest, but embarked the 
next morning in a little vessel, with three attendants. He 
was afterwards taken up by the commander of a merchant 
ship, and was at length conveyed to the island of Lesbos, 
where his wife, Cornelia, was residing ; Pompey had mar- 
ried her after the death of Julia, Caesar's daughter. 
Cornelia now provided a small fleet, and, determining to 
accompany her husband, they set sail upon the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. At last Pompey decided to seek refuge in 
Egypt. Some years before Pompey had been the means 
of restoring a king of Egypt to his throne ; this king had 



JULIUS CJESAR. 131 

since died, but had left his daughter, the famous Cleo- 
patra, on the throne, to rule, conjointly, with a ^^ounger 
brother, named Ptolemy. At this time, the Egyptian min- 
isters, who acted for the young prince, who was not old 
enough to be invested with the royal power, had dethroned 
Cleopatra that they might thus govern alone. 

Cleopatra went into Syria to raise an army to recover 
her lost throne, and Ptolemy's ministers had gone forth to 
battle with her. It was then that Pompey arrived in 
Egypt, and thinking that the young prince Ptolemy would 
receive him on account of the services Pompey had ren- 
dered to the Egyptian king, father of Ptolemy, Pompey 
and Cornelia, with their little fleet, approached the shore 
intending to land. A messenger was sent to the young 
king to solicit a kind reception. The Egyptian ministers 
of Ptolemy persuaded him that it would be dangerous 
either to grant or refuse Pompey's request, and therefore, 
counselled that he might be invited to their camp, and then 
that he should be killed ; this would please Caesar, who 
was now so powerful, and it would put Pompey oiut of 
their way. This ungrateful counsel prevailed, and an 
Egyptian was appointed to perform the bloody deed. A 
courteous invitation was sent to Pompey to land, who, 
however, parted with his wife, Cornelia, with many 
forebodings of evil. As the boat of the Egyptians reached 
Pompey's galley the officers hailed him with every mark of 
respect; bidding Cornelia farewell, Pompey, with two 
centurions, stepped into the Egyptian boat and was rowed 
to the shore. Just as he was about to step from the boat 
the assassins drew their swords, and Pompey was slain 
before the very eyes of his wife, who beheld the bloody 
scene from the deck of her galley, and her piercing shriek 
was wafted to the ears of her dying husband. The 



132 JULIUS C^SAR. 

Egyptians then cut off the head of Pompey, leaving the 
headless body lying upon the shore. The two centurions 
who had accompanied Pompey, afterwards burned the 
bod}^, and sent the ashes to the heartbroken Cornelia. 

Caesar, in pursuit of Pompey, soon after reached Alex- 
andria, where he learned of his death ; and the Egyptians, 
hoping to please him, presented to him the bloody head of 
his late enemy. But though Caesar was very ambitious, 
he was not blood-thirsty, nor brutal in his wars. Instead 
of being pleased with such a ghastly gift, Caesar turned 
from the shocking spectacle in horror. While Caesar 
was in Alexandria many of Pompey's officers came and 
surrendered themselves to him ; and Caesar, finding him- 
self so powerful, determined to use his authority as 
Roman consul, to settle the dispute between Cleopatra and 
her brother Ptolem}'. It was at this time that Cleopatra, 
in order to plead her cause, was brought by her commands 
to Caesar's quarters, rolled up in a bale of carpeting, and 
carried upon the shoulders of a slave. As all the avenues 
of approach to Caesar's apartments were in the possession 
of her enemies she feared falling into their hands. Caesar 
espoused her cause, and determined that she and her 
brother Ptolemy should reign jointly. Ptolem}- was so 
incensed against his sister, for thus securing Caesar's 
allegiance, that a violent war was waged between the 
Egyptians and Cassar. This is called in history the Alex- 
andrine AYar. In the course of this contest CViesar took 
possession of the famous lighthouse of Pharos, one of 
the Seven Wonders of the world. During the progress of 
this war a great disaster occurred, which was the burning 
of the famous Alexandrian library. The number of v6l- 
umes, or rolls of parchment there collected, was said to have 
been seven hundred thousand. When we remember that 



JULIUS C^SAR. 133 

the people in those clays possessed no printed books, and 
that each one of these rolls had been written by hand, 
with immense labor, and at vast expense, the loss to the 
world of works which could never be reproduced was 
irreparable. Caesar was victorious in this war. The young- 
king Ptolem}' was defeated, and in attempting to retreat 
across one of the branches of the Nile he was drowned. 
Csesar finally settled Cleopatra and a younger brother upon 
the throne of Egypt and returned to Rome. While Ca?sar 
was in Egypt three great powers had arisen against him, 
in Asia Minor, in Africa, and in Spain. 

He first went to Asia Minor and so quickly defeated 
his enemies there, that it was in reference to this battle 
that he wrote the famous inscription for his banner, which 
appeared in his triumphal procession, " Veni^ VicU, Vlci,'' 
I came, I saw, I conquered. Cfiesar then proceeded to 
Africa, where his old enemy Cato had raised a large 
force against him. Caesar was successful also in this 
contest, and finally shut up Cato in the city of Utica. 
Cato, finding defence hopeless, killed himself. 

From Africa, Caesar returned to Rome for a short time, 
and then went to Spain to put down the rebellion there 
which was led by the sons of Pompey. Here also he was 
successful, and the conqueror returned to Rome the undis- 
puted master of the whole Roman world. Then came his 
magnificent triumphs. Caesar celebrated four triumphs 
for his four great campaigns, in Egypt, in Asia Minor, in 
Africa, and in Spain. These were celebrated upon sep- 
arate days. These triumphs were gorgeous in the ex- 
treme. Forty elephants were employed as torch-bearers 
in one triumph which took place at night, each elephant 
holding a great blazing flambeau in his proboscis and 
waving it proudly in the air. These triumphal proces- 



134 JULIUS C^SAB. 

sions are thus described by one historian. "In these 
triumphal processions everything was borne in exhibition 
which could serve as a symbol of the conquered country 
or a troph}' of victory. Flags and banners, taken from 
the enem}' ; vessels of gold and silver and other treas- 
ures loaded in vans ; wretched captives conveyed in open 
carriages, or marching sorrowfully on foot, and destined, 
some of them, to public execution when the ceremony of 
the triumph was ended ; displays of arms and implements 
and dresses and all else which might serve to give the 
Roman crowd an idea of the customs and usages of the 
remote and conquered nations ; the animals they used 
caparisoned in the manner in which the}' used them ; 
these and a thousand other trophies and emblems were 
brought into the line to excite the admiration of the 
crowd, and to add to the gorgeousness of the spectacle. 
In these triumphs of Caesar a young sister of Cleopatra, 
wearing chains of gold, was in the line of the Egyptian 
procession. In that devoted to Asia Minor was a great 
banner containing the words already referred to, Veni, 
Vidi, Vici. There were great paintings, too, borne aloft, 
representing battles and other striking scenes. Of course, 
all Rome was in the highest state of excitement during 
the days of the exhibition of this pageantry. 

"The whole surrounding countrj' flocked to the capital to 
witness it, and Caesar's greatness and glory were signal- 
ized in the most conspicuous manner to all the world. 
After these triumphs, a series of splendid public enter- 
tainments were given, over twenty thousand tables having 
been spread for the populace of the city. Shows of every 
character and variety were exhibited. There were dra- 
matic plays and equestrian performances in the circus, and 
gladiatorial combats, and battles with wild beasts, and 



JULIUS C^SAR. 135 

dances and chariot races and every other amusement 
which could be devised to gratify a population highly cul- 
tivated in all the arts of life, but barbarous and cruel in 
heart and character. Some of the accounts which have 
come down to us of the magnificence of the scale on which 
these entertainments were conducted are absolutely incred- 
ible. It is said that an immense basin was constructed near 
the Tiber, large enough to contain two fleets of galleys, 
which had on board two thousand rowers each and one 
thousand fighting men. These fleets were then manned 
with captives, — the one with Asiatics, and the other with 
Egyptians, — and when all was ready, they were compelled 
to fight a real battle for the amusement of the specta- 
tors who thronged the shores, until vast numbers were 
killed, and the waters of the lake were d3"ed with blood. 
It is also said that the entire Forum and some of the 
great streets in the neighborhood, where the principal 
gladiatorial shows were held, were covered with silken 
awnings to protect the vast crowds of spectators from 
the sun, and thousands of tents were erected to accom- 
modate the people from the surrounding country, whom 
the buildings of the city could not contain." 

All open opposition to Caesar's power was now put down. 
The Senate vied with the people to do him honor He 
was first made consul for ten years, and then perpetual 
dictator. They conferred upon him the title of "The 
Father of his Country." Caesar now began to form plans 
for immense improvements which should benefit his empire. 
He completed the regulation of the calendar. " The sys- 
tem of months in use in his day corresponded so imper- 
fectly with the annual circuit of the sun, that the months 
were moving continually along the 3'ear in such a manner 
that the winter months came at length in the summer, 



136 JULIUS CyESAR. 

and the summer months in the winter. This led to great 
practical inconveniences. For whenever, for example, 
anything was required by law to be done in certain 
months, intending to have them done in the summer, and 
the specified month came at length to be a winter month, 
the law would require the thing to be done in exactly the 
wrong season. Csesar remedied all tliis by adopting a 
new system of months which should give three hundred 
and sixty-five days to the year for three years, and three 
hundred and sixty-six for the fourth ; and so exact was 
the system which he thus introduced that it went on un- 
changed for sixteen centuries. The months were then 
found to be eleven days out of the way, and a new cor- 
rection was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII., and it will 
now go on three thousand years before the error will 
amount to a single day. Caesar employed a Greek as- 
tronomer to arrange the system he adopted, and for this 
improvement one of the months was called July, after 
Julius Caesar. Its former name was Quintilis." 

Caesar commenced the collection of vast libraries ; 
formed plans for draining the Pontine Marshes, and for 
bringing great supplies of water into the city b}' an aque- 
duct ; and he intended to cut a new passage for the Tiber 
from Rome to the sea. He also planned a road along the 
Apennines, and a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, 
and intended to construct other vast works which sliould 
make Rome the wonder of the world. 

But in the midst of all these grand projects he was sud- 
denly stricken down. Although the Romans disliked the 
thought of being ruled by a king, they preserved certain 
■statues of their kings in some of the public buildings, and 
the ambition of Caesar led him very foolishly to place his 
own statue among them. He also had a seat prepared 



JULIUS CAESAR. 137 

for himself in tlie Senate in the form of a throne. On 
one occasion, when the members of the Senate were to 
come to him in a temple to announce certain decrees they 
had passed to his honor, Caesar received them sitting upon 
a magnificent chair, which seemed a throne, so gorgeous 
was it ; and he did not even rise to welcome them, as was 
the usual custom, thus showing that he would receive 
them as a monarch, who never rises in the presence of 
inferiors. This incident, small as it may seem, aroused 
much indignation. His statue was also found adorned 
with a laurel crown, to which was fastened a white fillet, 
which was an emblem of royalty. On another occasion, 
at a public entertainment, an oflflcer placed a diadem upon 
the head of Caesar, who pretended to be disinclined to 
receive it, and taking it off, it was ofll'ered twice again, and 
refused, when Caesar sent the diadem to a temple near 
by as an offering to Jupiter. Although he thus appeared 
to reject the honor, his manner indicated that he only 
desired to be more warmly pressed to receive it. There 
was now formed a strong conspiracy against Caesar, 
headed by Cassius, who had for a long time been Caesar's 
enemy. Cassius at last succeeded in persuading Marcus 
Brutus to join him. The plan was then divulged to such 
men as the conspirators thought most necessary to the 
success of their plot. It was agreed that Cffisar must be 
slain. They at length decided that the Roman Senate 
was the proper place. As it had been rumored that 
Caesar's friends were about to attempt to crown him as a 
king on the Ides of March, that day was chosen by the 
conspirators as a fitting one on which Julius Caesar should 
meet his doom. Caesar received many warnings of his 
approaching fate, and the soothsayers reported many 
strange omens which betokened some portentous event. 



138 JULIUS CAESAR. 

One of these soothsayers informed Caesar that he had 
been warned, by certain signs at a pubUc sacrifice, that 
some terrible danger threatened his life on the Ides of 
March ; and he besought him to be cautious until that day 
should have passed. The Senate were to meet on the Ides 
of March in a new and magnificent edifice, which had been 
erected by Pompey. In this Senate Chamber was a 
statue of Pompey. The day before the Ides of March, 
some birds of prey from a neighboring grove came flying 
into this hall, pursuing a little wren which had a sprig of 
laurel in its beak. The birds tore the poor wren to 
pieces, and the laurel fell from its bill to the marble pave- 
ment below. As Caesar had been crowned w^ith laurel 
after his victories, and always wore a wreath of laurel on 
public occasions, this event was thought to portend some 
evil to him. The night before the Ides of March, both 
Caesar and his wife Calpurnia awoke from terrible dreams. 
Caesar dreamed that he ascended into the skies and was 
received by Jupiter, and Calpurnia, awakening with a 
wild shriek, declared that she had di'eamed that the roof 
of the house had fallen in, and that her husband had been 
stabbed by an assassin. When morning came, Calpurnia 
endeavored to persuade Caesar not to go to the Senate, 
and he had consented to comply with her wish, until one 
of the conspirators, who had been appointed to accom- 
pany Caesar to the Senate, came to the house of Julius 
Caesar, and by his declarations that the people were wait- 
ing to confer upon their dictator the title of king through- 
out all the Roman dominions excepting Italy alone, he at 
length persuaded Caesar to go with him. On the way to 
the Senate, a Greek teacher, having learned something of 
the plot, wrote a statement of it, and as Caesar passed 
him he gave it to him, saying, " Read this immediately ; 



JULIUS C^SAR. 139 

it concerns yourself, and is of the utmost importance." 
Caesar made the attempt to do so, but the crowd of peo- 
ple who pressed towards him and handed him various 
petitions, as was the usual custom when a state officer 
appeared in public, prevented Caesar from thus learning 
of the dreadful fate awaiting him. There was one warm 
friend of Caesar, named Marc Antony, whom the conspir- 
ators feared might interfere with the successful comple- 
tion of their plot, and so it was arranged that one of their 
number should engage the attention of Antony, while the 
petitioner chosen should advance and make his appeal to 
Caesar, which should be the signal for the bloody deed. 
This conspirator made a pretence of asking Caesar for the 
pardon of his brother, which request, as they had expected, 
Caesar declined to grant. This occasioned an outburst of 
pretended fury, under cover of which the conspirators 
rushed upon Caesar and stabbed him with their swords. 
Caesar at first attempted to defend himself, but as Brutus, 
his former friend, also plunged his dagger into his side, 
he exclaimed, "And you, too, Brutus?" and drawing his 
mantle over his face, he fell at the feet of Pompey's 
statue and expired. Now again the city of Rome was in 
wild tumult. 

The conspirators marched boldly through the streets 
with their bloody swords. They boasted of their shock- 
ing deed, and announced that they had delivered their coun- 
try from a tyrant. The people, stunned by the daring of 
this terrible act, knew not what to think or do. Some 
barricaded their houses in fear ; others hurried through 
the streets with blanched faces ; and still others excitedly 
seized any kind of weapon near at hand, and joined a 
mob, which threatened to break out in awful violence, to 
avenge the death of Caesar, their idol. 



140 JULIUS C^SAR, 

During all this time tlie body of Caesar lay unhcedcfl at 
the foot of Pompey's statue, pierced with twenty-three 
wounds, made by the hands of men he thought were his 
friends. Three slaves were his only guardians ; and at 
last they lifted the poor bruised, bleeding, and ghastly 
corpse, and carried it home to the distracted Calpurnia. 
The next day, Brutus and the other conspirators called 
tlie people together in the Forum, and there addressed 
them, endeavoring to persuade them that the deed had 
been committed only in the interests of the people, to rid 
them of a tyrant. But the subsequent famous funeral 
speech of Marc Antony, roused the people to such a wild 
frenzy of revenge, that the conspirators were only saved 
from death with great difficulty by the intervention of 
the Senate. 

The Field of Mars had been chosen as the place for the 
funeral pile ; but after the speech of Marc Antony in the 
Forum, where the body of Caesar had been placed on a 
gilded bed covered with scarlet and cloth of gold, under 
a gorgeous canopy made in the form of a temple, the 
people in their wild outbursts of love for Caesar, as they 
had then learned from his will, which Antony read aloud 
to them, of his munificent bequests to the Roman citizens, 
became ungovernable in their desires to do him reverence. 
As a crier, by Antony's order, read the decrees of the 
Senate, in which all honors, human and divine, had been 
been ascribed to Caesar, the gilded bed upon which he lay 
was lifted and borne out into the centre of the Forum ; and 
two men, having forced their way through the crowd, with 
lighted torches set fire to the bed on which the body of 
Caesar lay, and the multitudes with shouts of enthusiastic 
applause, seized everj^thing within reach and placed them 
upon the funeral pile. The soldiers then threw on their 



JULIUS (J^SAR. 141 

lances and spears ; musicians cast their instruments into 
the increasing flames ; women tore off their jewels to add 
to the gorgeous pile, and all vied with each other to con- 
tribute something to enlarge the blazing funeral pile. So 
fierce were the flames that the\' spread to some of the 
neighboring buildings, and a terrible conflagration which 
would have given Caesar tlie most majestic funeral pile in 
the annals of the world, for it would have been the blazing 
light from the burning city of Rome itself, was only pre- 
vented by the most strenuous efforts. 

Some time after, Octavius Csesar, the successor of Ju- 
lius Ca?sar, and Marc Antony, waged war with Cassius 
and Brutus ; and at the battle of Philippi, where Cassius 
and Brutus were defeated, and while they were fleeing 
from the field, hopeless of further defence, they both 
killed tliemselves with their own swords. 

Caesar died at the age of fifty-six. The Roman people 
erected a column to his memor^^ on which tliey placed 
the inscription, "To the Father of His Country." A 
figure of a star was placed upon the summit of this memo- 
rial shaft, and some time afterwards, while the people 
were celebrating some games in honor of Caesar's memory, 
a great comet blazed for seven nights in the sky, which 
they declared to be a sign that the soul of Caesar was 
admitted among the gods. 



^^2 CHARLEMAGNE. 



CHARLEMAGNE. 

742-814 A.D. 

" To whom God will, there be the victory." 

Shakespeare. 

rpHERE was great terror and dismay among the inliabi- 
X tants of the city of Paris, called in those early days, 

Lutetia. 

The Gauls, who dwelt in that part of the country, 
were now menaced by a foe even more terrible than the 
Roman soldiers led by the famous Julius Caesar, who had 
invaded their land about 500 years before, and made then- 
country a Roman province. 

But now a fearful war-cry rings through the an' ; and 
as the frightened Gauls hastily arm themselves for resist- 
ance, a horde of Teutonic giants, with light complexions, 
long 'yellow hair waving in the wind, and eyes so bright 
and cat-like that they fairly shone with a green glare of 
animal-like ferocity, which was heightened by their cloth- 
ing made of the skins of the bear, the boar, and the wolf, 
making them look in the distance like a herd of wild 
beasts^ came rushing like an avalanche of destruction 
over the peaceful homes of the Gauls. These hordes ad- 
vanced in a mighty wedge-like phalanx, formed of their 
bravest warriors, each man carrying in his right hand a 
long lance, and in the left a buckler, or skin-covered 
shiSd, while his girdle held a sharp two-edged axe, which 
became, with dexterous handling, amost dangerous weapon, 
and was hurled from a distance with marvellous aim. With 
mounted warriors protecting the wings of this invincible 




CHARLEMAGNE. 
(From Early Engraving.) 



CHARLEMAGNE. 143 

phalanx, on came this fierce, wild tribe, charging to battle 
with a terrible war-whoop, wiiich they made more shrill 
by placing the edge of the buckler to the mouth. 

In vain the Gauls looked to Rome for help. There was 
too much trouble in Italy for the Roman government to 
help any one. So these giant Franks came rushing un- 
checked on to Paris, while the frightened Gauls were 
powerless to resist them. The leader of this horde was 
called Hilperik, the son of Meerwig ; and having taken 
possession of Paris, and several surrounding provinces, 
he founded the kingdom afterwards called France, from 
this tribe who Avere called Franks. 

The stor}' of kings is too often a story of l)lood and 
cruelty, and the kingdom which the great Charlemagne 
inherited had been the scene of fearful and continual con- 
flicts. 

The Goths, one of the fierce German nations, had con- 
quered a large part of Gaul after it had become a Roman 
province, and in the year 451, the Huns, a more terrible 
nation still, whose chief was the famous Attila, who 
called himself the "• Scourge of God," invaded Gaul with 
his army, — horrible looking men, whose faces had been 
gaslied by their savage parents in their infancy, that they 
might look more dreadful. The poor Gauls thouglit 
.rightly, tiiat it was more fearful to fall into their hands 
than into those of the Franks ; but the Huns came no 
further than Orleans, where an army, composed of Gauls, 
Franks, Goths, Burgundians, all under the Roman general 
^tius, attacked the Huns at ChMons-sur-Marne, beat 
them, and drove them back. Chylous was the last victory 
in Gaul, won under the Roman banners, and now the 
poor Gauls were obliged to meet their enemies alone. The 
chief tribes of those warlike races, who swarmed over 



144 CHA RLE MA GNE. 

Europe, both north and south, were the Goths who con- 
quered Rome, and settled in Spain ; the Longbeards or 
Lombards, who spread over the north of Italy ; the Bur- 
oundians, or town-livers, who held all the countrv around 
the Alps ; the Swabians and Germans, who stayed in the 
middle of Europe ; the Saxons, who dwelt south of the 
Baltic, and finally conquered South Britain ; the North- 
men, who found a home in Scandinavia ; and the Franks, 
who had been long settled on the rivers Sale, Meuse, and 
Rhine. Their name meant freemen, and they were noted 
for usins; an axe, called after them. Of the Franks there 
were two noted tribes, — the Salian, from the river Sale, 
and the Ripuarian. Tliey were great horsemen, and the 
Saliftns had a family of kings, who were supposed to have 
descended from one of then- warlike gods, called Odin. 
Although the Franks were a ferocious and sometimes 
cruel race, they were in some respects superior to the 
other barbaric tribes, and were liked better by the Gauls 
than any other of those various nations. 

After Caesar's conquest many of the Romans had re- 
mained in Gaul, and had built and conquered cities, and 
lived under Roman laws. The}* taught the Gauls to speak 
Latin, and organized many schools and colleges among 
them. The Gauls adopted the Roman dress and religion. 
The relioion of the ancient Gauls had been tauoht to 
the people by priests, called Druids. Druidism was a 
confusion of mingled ideas of Oriental dreams and tradi- 
tions, borrowed from the mythologies of the East and the 
North ; and although it was degraded by barbaric prac- 
tices such as human sacrifices in honor of the gods or of 
the dead, it possessed one germ of truth, for the Druids 
believed in the immortality of the soul. Their priests 
were old and wise men, who had studied often for twenty 



.\>r^:*:^^ 




THE HUNS AT CHALONS. 



CHARLEMAGNE. 145 

years before they were considered wise enough to become 
'' Men of the Oak," as tlie chief Druids were called. 
They made laws for the people and settled questions of 
dispute. Once every year the Druids went out to look 
for the mistletoe, which they considered a sacred plant. 
When a mistletoe was found growing upon an oak, the 
people came from all parts of the country and stood around 
the tree. Then a Druid, clothed in white, climbed up the 
oak-tree, and cut off the sacred mistletoe with a solden 
sickle, and the much prized plant was caught by the 
other Druids below, in a white cloth, and was carried 
away to be preserved as a great treasure. 

But the Gauls living in those provinces conquered by 
the Romans, had given up their old Druidical religion, and 
adopted that of their conquerors, which was no improve- 
ment, for it was also a paganism, and was such a mass of 
superstition and idolatry, derived from Grecian m3'thologv 
and old traditions, that it did not even possess the vital 
force of the Druidical belief. For the Druids worshipped, 
as the}' thought, living deities, while the Graeco-Roman 
paganism was a dead religion, with onl}^ dead gods, buried 
beneath their still standing altars. Such were the supersti- 
tions and false religions with which the Christians of the 
early centuries had to contend in laboring to convert the 
then known world to the worship of the one true and 
living God and His Son Jesus Christ, who had already 
lived his holy life upon this earth, and given himself a 
sacrifice for the salvation of mankind. Alread}^ the dis- 
ciples of Christ had founded Christian churches in Asia 
Minor and Palestine, and many of them had died as 
martyrs for the faith. St. Paul had preached at Athens 
and at Rome, and having finished his glorious work he 
had received his crown of martyrdom. And all down 



1 46 CHARLEMAGNE. 

these early centuries teachers had been sent out by the 
Christian churches, to endeavor to convert the heathen 
world around to a belief in the one true and only religion 
which could secure the salvation of the immortal soul. 
The Roman emperors had all persecuted the Christians 
and sought to uphold paganism. But when a.d. 312, the 
Emperor Constantine declared himself a Christian, 
"paganism fell, and Christianity mounted the throne." 
Previous to the conquest of Gaul by the Franks, the Gauls 
had adopted Christianity, and when Hilperik, king of the 
Franks, conquered Paris and the surrounding country, 
and at his death left this kingdom to his son, named 
Hlodwio;, or Clovis, there were manv Christians and 
churches and monasteries in Gaul. Clovis conquered 
many of the surrounding provinces, and at last became 
the ruler of nearly the whole of Gaul. Clovis had 
married a Burgundian maiden, named Clothilda, and as 
she was a Christian he allowed her to worship God in the 
Christian churches. But in the great battle of Tolbiacum, 
which Clovis fought with the Germans, when it seemed 
as though the Franks would be defeated, Clovis took an 
oath that if the God of his wife would give him the vic- 
tory he would become a Christian. The Franks were 
victorious, and Clovis was baptized with all his chief 
warriors. 

When Clovis died, he left four sons, among whom he 
divided his kingdom. One was the king of Paris ; an- 
other, king of Orleans ; a third, king of Soissons ; and 
the fourth, who reigned over that part of Gaul nearest 
Germany and the Rhine, was called king of Metz. In 
a battle with the Burgundians, the king of Orleans, Clo- 
domir, was killed, leaving three young sons who were 
placed in the care of their grandmother Clothilda. At 




"thrust him away, or thou DIEST IN HIS STEAD. 



CHAELEMAGNE. 147 

length the kings of Paris and Soissons became jealous 
of these children of their elder brother Clodomir, and 
sent for the children, under pretence of placing them 
upon the throne of their father. But as soon as thej' had 
them in their cruel power, they sent a pair of scissors and 
a sword to Clothilda, with a message, saying : " We wait 
thy wishes as to the three children ; shall they be slain or 
shorn ? " meaning, shall they be killed or shut up in 
monasteries? Clothilda, in despair, cried out: "Slain, 
rather than shorn ! " and the messengers, not waiting to 
hear her further words, returned to the cruel kings, and 
announced that they had secured the consent of Clothilda 
for the shocking deed. The wicked kings then hastily 
entered the room where the three helpless boys were im- 
prisoned, and having slain the eldest, the second one clung 
to the knees of his uncle Childebert, king of Paris, who 
was for a moment moved with pity, and asked liis brother 
Clotaire to spare the bo}'. But the wicked Clotaire, 
king of Soissons, exclaimed iu wrath, "Thrust him away 
or thou diest in his stead ! " Whereupon, Childebert 
tried no more to save him, and Clotaire seized the poor 
boy, wlio was now shrieking with terror, and plunged a 
hunting-knife into his side, as he had his brother's, and 
slew him. These murdered children were onW ten and 
seven years old. The third brother was snatched up by 
some brave friends, and hidden away where the cruel 
uncles could not find him. He was afterwards placed in 
a monastery, and became a monk, and founded a monas- 
tery near Paris, called after him, St. Cloud. After the 
sons of Clovis there followed a line of kings in France 
called the Meerwings, or long-haired kings, known in his- 
toiT as the Merovingians ; and only two of them are im- 
portant enough to be mentioned, and those only on 



148 CHA RLE MA GNE. 

account of their crimes. One of the sons of Clovis left 
four sons ; and two of these, named Hilperik and Sieg- 
bert, married the two daughters of the king of the Goths, 
in Spain. These sisters were called Galswinth and 
Bruneliild. Hilperik loved a slave girl he owned, named 
Fredegond, and either with or without his consent, his 
wife Galswinth was found strangled in her bed, and 
he afterwards married the murderess, Fredegond, who, 
though most atrociously wicked, became a powerful 
queen. Brunehild persuaded her husband Siegbert to 
make war upon Hilperik, to avenge the death of her sis- 
ter. Hilperik was defeated, but the Queen Fredegond 
contrived to have Siegbert murdered, and afterwards 
killed her husband's other children, thus leaving her own 
son heir to the throne. She then ordered her husband 
also to be put to death, so that she could reign alone in 
the name of her infant son. The four kingdoms left by 
Clovis had been now merged into three, — Neustria, which 
is now the north of France ; Austrasia, which is now the 
north-east corner of France, and part of Belgium, and 
part of the western side of Germany ; and the third king- 
dom was called Burgundy. The Neustrians and the 
Austrasians were usually at war with each other, the 
Burgundians taking now one side of the quarrel and now 
the other. Queen Fredegoud's part of Gaul was Neus- 
tria, while Queen Brunehild governed Austrasia. But 
Brunehild quarrelled with the chiefs of the country ; and 
after many years of wars, plots, and murders, she was at 
last brutally killed by the son of Fredegond, who be- 
came king of all the Franks ; and in Neustria every one 
obeyed him ; but in Austrasia the great chiefs and 
bishops were opposed to him. The bishops had by this 
time become rich and powerful, for a great amount of 



VHAitLEMAGNE. 149 

land had been left to the church b}^ the wills of dying 
Christians, or as gifts from kings and chiefs. When 
Clotaire, son of Fredegond, died, he left two sons ; one 
of them named Dagobert made himself master of Neus- 
tria and Austrasia, and gave his brother land in the 
south part of the country, which had not been visited 
before by a Frankish king. Dagobert took Paris for his 
chief town ; he made himself a splendid court, took jour- 
nej's through his kingdom, doing justice to his subjects, 
and encouraged the building of churches, and had copies 
of the old Frankish laws written out and sent throughout 
his kingdom. The people liked him ; but the powerful 
chiefs and the bishops, who had become so worldly that 
they thought a great deal more about piling up riches 
than in turning the people to Christianity, were filled with 
dismay to have so wise and just a king, who was fast 
gaining a great power over the people. After ten 3'ears 
Dagobert died and left two sons ; one was king of Aus- 
trasia ; and the younger king of Neustria. After these, 
there followed three more kings in Neustria, and four in 
Austrasia, but they had no power, and were only called 
kings, while the government was really in the hands of a 
new set of men, from which line the illustrious Charle- 
magne sprang. The chief man next the king in these 
countries was called the Mayor of the Palace. He had 
the chief command in times of war, and at last became in 
truth the sovereign ruler ; and they only put up one of 
their do-nothing kings as a figure-head. After the death 
of Dagobert, there was no other Frankish king of any 
importance in the line of the Merovingians. The Faine- 
ants, or do-nothing kings, as they were called, sat on the 
throne and pretended to rule, but the ma3^or of the pal- 
ace told them what they must say to the people and what 



150 CHA RLE MA GNE. 

they must do. This weut on for nearly a hundred years. 
When Dagobert died, the mayor of the palace was named 
Pepin, and through several reigns he really governed both 
Austrasia and Neustria. He made war against the Ger- 
mans, and sometimes when they were very troublesome 
he went with an army and subdued them ; and at other 
times he sent monks to try and convert them to Chris- 
tianity. When Pepin died, his son Karl became the 
mayor of the palace. Now Karl wished to secure money 
to give to his chiefs, so that they would fight for him, 
and so he took away from the bishops tlie rich lands 
which belonged to the church, and gave them to his 
warriors. Karl had first to fight the Saxons, whom he 
defeated, and then there appeared a new foe. The 
Arabs lived in Arabia, on the east side of the Red Sea, 
in Asia. 

They had always been a poor, wandering people. But 
about one hundred and fifty years before this time, an 
Arab had appeared among his countrymen, claiming to 
be a mighty prophet, and teaching them a new religion. 
It was not the Christian religion ; but this man, who was 
named Mohammed, claimed that he had been sent by God 
to teach the people ; and so the religion he proclaimed 
was called Mohammedanism. Now the Arabs had never 
left their own country before, but they determined to go 
forth and conquer the world, and make all the nations 
Mohammedans. They conquered Persia, Egypt, Spain, 
and a part of Africa. When they overcame any nation, 
if the people would consent to become Mohammedans, 
the Arabs treated them with kindness ; but if they re- 
fused, they made slaves of them, and sometimes put 
them to death. Having conquered Spain, the Arabs 
wished to become masters of France. 



CHARLEMAGNE. 151 

When they had passed the Pyrenees, Karl went forth to 
meet them. There was a great battle, known in history 
as the Battle of Tours, and at length Karl conquered the 
Mohammedans, and drove them out of France. Some 
accounts state that three hundred thousand Arabs were 
killed. 

This mayor of the palace has been called Karl the 
Hammer, or in French, Charles Martel, in memory of the 
blows he inflicted upon these Mohammedan enemies. 
He was afterwards called the Duke of the Franks. 

In the time of Charles Martel, several kings became 
monks. An English monk named Winfrid had been 
sent l)y the Pope and Charles Martel to preach to tlie 
Saxons. After persuading thousands of the people to be 
baptized, this monk was made bishop and then arch- 
bisiiop. But he thought more of converting the heathen 
than of wearing honors, and leaving his bishopric to 
another, he went forth into a wild part of the country to 
preach Christianity. When a large number of people had 
assembled to be baptized, an armed force of the heathen 
attacked them, killing Winfrid and all the Christian peo- 
ple. This good monk is called also St. Boniface. 

After the death of Charles JMartel his two sons ruled 
for six years together, and then one of them went into a 
monastery, leaving the younger, Pepin, who now became 
the only duke of the Franks. 

The people began to think it absurd to have a useless 
set of lazy, do-nothing, Merovingian, or long-haired kings, 
who were only puppets in the hands of the reigning duke. 
So Pepin, also called Le Bref, or the Short, asked the 
Pope to make him king, instead of the figure-head who sat 
upon the throne, who at that time bore the name of Hil- 
perik. The answer of the Pope was, "He who has the 
power ought also to have the name of king." 



152 CHA RLE MA GNE. 

As the Pope had thus consented to the change, all the 
Franks were delighted, and they took the useless king 
from his throne, cut off his long yellow hair, which was 
his sign of royalty, and shut him up in a monastery. He 
died two years afterwards, and was the last of the Mero- 
vingian kings. 

Pepin was now crowned by St. Boniface, as this event 
preceded the death of that king, and thus he became the 
first of the Carlovingiau kings, so called from Carolus, 
tlie Latin for Charles, which was the name of Pepin's 
father, and his still greater son. 

Pepin now aided the Pope by marching into Italy and 
fighting the Lombards; and having conquered them, he 
took their lands and gave them to the Pope, which prop- 
erty afterwards descended from one pope to another, so 
that the popes at last became masters of quite a kingdom 
in Italy. Pepin also besieged a town in Southern Gaul, 
belonging to the Arabs, and after seven years captured it, 
and drove the Arabs over the Pyrenees, into Spain. He 
reigned for sixteen years, and dying left his kingdom to 
his two sons Karl and Karloman, who divided it between 
them; but Karloman lived but three years, when Karl 
became the king of France. 

While his Austrasian subjects, who spoke German, 
called him Karl, the Neustrians, whose language was a 
mino-lins of the Latin and the German, which has since 
become the French language, called him Charles ; and 
after he became so famous, the Latin word magnus, mean- 
ing great, was added, and Charles-Magnus thus became 
the Charlemagne of history. 

Very little can be learned regarding the early life of 
Charlemagne. One of the old writers, named Eginhard, 
who afterwards became the secretary of Charlemagne, 





JiaLiClukL. 



Parlonwaip. 



CHARLEMAGNE. 153 

records that neither he himself, nor any one then living, 
knew anything about the birth of this prince, nor about 
his infancy, nor even youth. His father. King Pepin, 
had his two sons associated with himself, when he received 
the title of king from the Bishop of Rome ; but neither 
of them received any separate government during their 
father's life. They were taught, with the other young 
nobles, by Peter of Pisa, whom Pepin retained at his 
court for this purpose. It is supposed that King Pepin 
took the young princes witli him in his Italian expeditions, 
and that Charlemagne accompanied his father in the Aqui- 
tanian war. When King Pepin died, his eldest son was 
twenty-six years and a half old, while the younger was 
barely nineteen. Both were already married to wives of 
the Frank race. Charles, or Charlemagne, to Himil- 
trude, and Carloman to Gerberge. 

The first battle in which Charlemagne engaged was 
soon after his father's death, with the Aquitanians, who 
were the people living in the south-west part of France. 
The brother-kings raised troops to meet them, but Carlo- 
man through jealousy withdrew his forces, leaving Charle- 
magne to cany on the war alone. He was victorious, 
and the Aquitanians submitted. The queen-mother 
Bertrada now used her inflaence to secure a permanent 
alliance between the Lombards and the Franks, and 
persuaded Charlemagne to divorce his wife and marry 
Desiderata, the daughter of Didier the Lombard king. 
This Charlemagne consented to do, even against the ad- 
vice of the Pope, and he suffered for his folly, or wicked- 
ness ; for so it was, even though his mother did sanction 
it, for he was so unhappy with Desiderata, that in about 
a year he put her away and married Hildegarde. In those 
days kings married and divorced their wives as often as 



154 CHARLEMA GNE. 

they pleased, and Charlemagne, with all his greatness and 
his aid to Christianity, was in this particular very culpa- 
ble, and his domestic life was not at all in keeping with 
the majesty, and goodness, and uprightness of his public 
life. After the death of Hildegarde, he married two 
other wives. One Fastrada, an Austrasian, was a very 
wicked woman, and caused him much trouble. The last 
one, whom he loved the most, was named Luitgarda. 
She was kind and gentle, and her influence over Charle- 
magne was very beneficial after the wicked Fastrada had 
led him into so much trouble. The French have an old 
legend, which relates that the evil influence which Fas- 
trada exercised over the strong mind of the great king, 
leading him to acts of injustice and tyranny, which alien- 
ated the affections of his nobles, was due to the magic 
spell of a ring which she wore. On her death, the ring 
came into possession of a bishop, for whom Charlemagne 
immediately showed such admiration, that the bishop 
found it unpleasant, and cast the ring into a neighboring- 
lake. Here it also exercised its magic charm, and the 
king would sit for hours gazing into the waters of the 
lake, as though spell-bound. But this legend cannot dis- 
guise the weak side of Charlemagne's character, and we 
can only turn from it and fix our attention upon his great 
career. 

He was one of the wisest and most powerful of kings. 
His life was one of constant war. He fought the Saxons 
for thirty-three years, but at last he conquered Witikind, 
the great Saxon leader, in 785, and persuaded him to 
be baptized. Charlemagne made him Duke of Saxony, 
and he lived in good faith to tlie new vows he had taken. 
Notwithstanding this victory over the Saxons, Charle- 
magne foresaw the evils which should come upon Europe 



CHARLEMAGNE. 155 

through the formidable Northmen. The monk of 8t. Gall 
relates this incident : " Charlemagne arrived unexpectedly 
in a certain town of Narbonnese Gaul. Whilst he was at 
dinner, and was as yet unrecognized of any, some cor- 
sairs of the Northmen came to ply their piracies in the 
very port. When their vessels were descried, they were 
supposed to be Jewish traders according to some, Afi'ican 
according to others, and Bi'itish in the opinion of others ; 
but the gifted monarch per^ceiving by the build and light- 
ness of the craft that they l)are not merchandise, but 
foes, said to his own folk, ' These vessels be not laden 
with merchandise, but manned with cruel foes.' At these 
words, all the Franks, in rivalry one with another, ran to 
their ships, but uselessly, for the Northmen, indeed, hear- 
ing that yonder was he whom it was still their wont to 
call Charles the Hammer, feared lest all their fleet should 
be taken or destroyed in the port, and the}' avoided by a 
flight of inconceivable rapidity not only the blows, but 
even the eyes of those who were pursuing them. 

" Pious Charles, however, a prey to well-grounded fear, 
rose up from table, stationed himself at a window looking 
eastward, and there remained a long while, and his eyes 
were filled with tears. As none durst question him, this 
warlike prince explained to the grandees who were about 
his person the cause of his movement and of his tears. 
'Know ye, my lieges, wherefore I weep so bitterly? Of 
a surety I fear not lest these fellows should succeed in 
injuring me by their miserable piracies ; but it grieveth 
me deeply that whilst I live, they should have been nigh 
to touching at this shore, and I am a prey to violent sor- 
row when I foresee what evils they will heap upon my 
descendants and their people.' " 

But during all the years of the Saxon wars, Charlemagne 



156 CHARLEMAGNE. 

had been cnrrying on various campaigns elsewhere. The 
Lombards were again at war with the Popes, and the 
king of Lombards, Didier, wliose daughter Charlemagne 
had married and so soon divorced, had now become his 
bitter foe. The new Pope, Adrian I., sought the aid of 
Charlemagne in this war with the Lombards, and he pre- 
pared for this Italian expedition. He raised two armies, 
— one to cross the Valais and descend upon Lombardy 
by Mount St. Bernard, and the other, to be led by Charle- 
magne, was to go by the way of Mount Cenis. Didier 
had with him a famous Dane, named Ogier, who had quar- 
relled with Charlemagne and taken refuge in Lombard}'. 
One of the monks of that time thus describes Charle- 
magne's arrival before Pavia, where Didier and the Dane 
Ogier had shut themselves up, as it w^as the strongest 
place in Lombardy. 

" AYhen Didier and Ogger (for so the monk calls him) 
heard that the dread monarch was coming, they ascended 
a tower of vast height, whence they could watch his arri- 
val from afar off and from every quarter. They saw, 
first of all, engines of wars, such as must have been 
necessary for the armies of Darius or Julius Caesar. ' Is 
not Charles,' asked Didier of Ogger, ' with this great 
army?' But the other answered, 'No.' The Lombard, 
seeing afterwards an immense body of soldiery gathered 
from all quarters of the vast empire, said to Ogger, 
' Certes, Charles advauceth in triumph in the midst of 
this throng.' 'No, not yet; he will not appear so 
soon,' was the answer. ' What should we do, then,' re- 
joined Didier, who began to be perturbed, ' should he 
come accompanied by a larger band of warriors ? ' ' You 
will see what he is when he comes,' replied Ogger ; ' but 
as to what will become of us I know nothing.' As they 



CHARLEMAGNE. 157 

were thus parleying appeared the body of guards that 
knew no repose, and at this sight the Lombard, overcome 
with dread, cried, ' This time 'tis surely Charles.' ' No,' 
answered Ogger, ' not yet.' In their wake came the 
bishops, the abbots, the ordinaries of the chapels royal, 
and the counts ; and then Didier, no longer able to bear 
the li"ht of dav or to face death, cried out with oroans, 
' Let us descend and hide ourselves in the bowels of the 
earth, far from the face and the fury of so terrible a foe.' 
Trembling the while, Ogger, who knew by experience 
what were the power and might of Charles, and who had 
learned the lesson by long usage in better days, then 
said, ' When ye sliall l)ehold the crops shaking for fear in 
the fields, and the gloomy Po and the Ticino overflowing 
the walls of the city with their waves blackened with 
steel (iron), then may ye think that Charles is coming.' 
He had not ended these words when there beoan to be 
seen in the west, as it were, a black cloud, raised b}' the 
north-west wind or by Boreas, which turned the bright- 
est day into awful shadows. But as the emperor drew 
nearer and nearer, the gleam of arms caused to shine on 
the people shut up within the city a day more gloomy 
than any kind of night. And then appeared Charles 
himself, that man of steel, with his head encased in a hel- 
met of steel, his hands garnished with guantlets of 
steel, his heart of steel and his shoulders of marble 
protected by a cuirass of steel, and his left hand armed 
with a lance of steel which he held aloft in the air, for 
as to his right hand, he kept that continually on the hilt 
of his invincible sword. The outside of his thighs, which 
the rest for their greater ease in mounting a horseback 
were wont to leare unshackled even by straps, he wore 
encircled by plates of steel. What shall I say concerning 



1 58 C HARLEM A GNE. 

his boots? All the iirmy were wont to have them invaria- 
bly of steel ; on his buckler there was nought to be seen 
but steel ; his horse was of the color and the strength of 
steel. All those who went before the monarch,* all those 
who marched at his side, all those who followed after, 
even the whole mass of the army, had armor of the like 
sort, so far as the means of each permitted. The fields 
and the highways were covered with steel ; the points of 
steel reflected the rays of the sun; and this steel, so 
hard, was borne by a people with hearts iitill harder. 
The flash of steel spread terror throughout the streets of 
the city. 'What steel! alack, wliat steel!' Such were 
the bewildered cries the citizens raised. The firmness of 
manhood and of youth gave way at sight of the steel, and 
tlie steel paralyzed the wisdom of the gray beards. That 
which I, poor tale-teller, mumbling and toothless, have 
attempted to depict in a long description, Ogger perceived 
at one rapid glance, and said to Didier, ' Here is what 3^e 
have so anxiously sought'; and whilst uttering these 
words he fell down almost lifeless." 

But notwithstanding all King Didier's fear, he and the 
Lombards ©vinced such resistance, that Charlemagne was 
obliged to gettle down before Pavia in a long siege. His 
camp without the city became a town, so that he sent for 
his wife. Queen Hildegarde, and her court, also his chil- 
dren and their attendants, and said to the chiefs of his 
army, "Let us begin b}' doing something memorable." 
So men were at once set to work to build a basilica, and 
within a week it was completed, with its walls, roofs, and 
painted ceilings, w^hich would seemingly have required a 
3^ear to erect. 

In this chapel, Charlemagne, and his family, court, and 
warriors, celebrated the festival of Christmas, 773. But 



CHA RLE MA GNE. 159 

just before Easter, 774, Charlemagne determined to leave 
his lieutenants to continue the siege, and attended by a 
numerous and brilliant retinue, he set off for Rome. On 
Holy Saturday, when Charlemagne was about three miles 
from Rome, the magistrates and citizens and pupils of 
the schools came forth to meet him, bearing palm-branches 
and singing hymns. At the gate of the city, Charlemagne 
dismounted before the cross, and entered Rome on foot, 
and having ascended the steps of the ancient basilica of 
St. Peter, he was received at the top by the Pope himself. 
Then a chant was sung by the people all around him : 
" Blessed be he that cometh in the name of the Lord." 

According to the custom of pilgrims, Charlemagne 
visited all the basilicas in Rome. He confirmed his 
father's gift to the former Pope, and added new gifts of 
his own. The Pope gave to Charlemagne a book con- 
taining a collection of the canons written by the pontiffs 
from the origin of the church. This he dedicated to 
Charlemagne, and wrote in it, "Pope Adrian, to his 
most excellent son Charlemagne, king." 

Charlemagne then returned to his camp before Pavia, 
and having captured the city, received the submission of 
all the Lombards. In 778 Charlemagne had a war with 
the Arabs in Spain. He crossed the Pyrenees and went 
as far as the Ebro, but the Arabs gave him large gifts of 
gold and jewels, and persuaded him to spare their fine 
cities. As he was returning over the mountains, his army 
was attacked by a wild people called the Basques ; and 
several of his bravest leaders were killed, among them 
the famous Roland, concerning whom various stories are 
told, one being that he blew a blast on his bugle with his 
last breath, to warn Charlemagne, who was far in the front, 
of this unexpected danger. Another legend makes him to 



160 CHARLEMAGNE. 

have possessed herculean strength, in token of which a 
o-reat cleft is shown in the Pyrenean Hills, said to have 
been made b}' one stroke of his sword, and it bears the 
name of the '' La Breche de Roland." Pfalgraf, or 
Count of the Palace, was the name given to some of the 
bravest Frank lords, and in old romances Roland and 
others are called the Paladins. 

Charlemagne had three sons, Carl, Pepin, and Lodwig, 
afterwards called Louis le Debonnaire. In 781 Charle- 
magne took his two 5^oanger sons, Pepin, aged four, and 
Louis, only three 3^ears of age, to Rome, where they were 
anointed by Pope Adrian I., — Pepin as king of Italy, and 
Louis as king of Aquitaine. On returning from Rome, 
Charlemaone sent the babv Louis at once to take formal 
possession of his kingdom. He was carried to Orleans 
in a cradle, and then the little prince was clad in a tiny 
suit of armor, and attendants held him up on horseback 
as he entered his kingdom of Aquitaine. He was accom- 
panied by many officers and men of state who were to 
form his council of guardians. Afterwards the poor 
baby king was taken back to his father's palace to be 
educated. 

Charlemagne founded Aix-la-Chapelle and made it his 
favorite winter residence. He went out to fight each 
summer, and came back to his kingdom in the winter. He 
was very seldom defeated in war, for he was wise and 
energetic, and moved his army about so quickly that he A 
was a match for much larger forces than his own. He 
held a council of war every Easter when all his chiefs 
assembled, and Charlemagne made known to them his 
plans for his coming campaign. He made improvements 
in the armor and weapons of his soldiers. Their helmets 
were provided with visors which could be brought down 




DEATH OF ROLAND. 



CHARLEMAGNE. 161 

to protect their faces in battle, aud their shields were 
long and large, instead of the small round skin-covered 
bucklers of the early Gauls. His soldiers fought with 
sharp-pointed, two-handed swords, and they employed 
also heavy clubs covered with iron knobs, which were 
most formidable weapons. Charlemagne's forces were 
mounted on strong fleet horses from the Rhine, and so 
great was his knowledge of all the surrounding countries, 
that he could despatch an army to an}- part of his king- 
dom at short notice, and with perfect accuracy as to 
route. 

On the 2od of November, 800, Charlemagne arrived 
at Rome, where he was met by Pope Leo III., whom he 
had several times aided in conflicts with his enemies, at 
one time receiving Leo into his own palace for a year, 
when conspirators at Rome were seeking the Pope's life. 
In return for these favors, and to secure the help of so 
mighty a warrior. Pope Leo crowned Charlemagne Em- 
peror of Rome. The ceremony was performed on Christ- 
mas day, 800. Eginhard thus described the scene : " The 
king came into the basilica of the blessed St. Peter, apos- 
tle, to attend the celebration of mass. At the moment 
when in his place before the altar he was bowing down 
to pray. Pope Leo placed upon his head a crown, and all 
the Roman people shouted, ' Long life and victory to 
Charles Augustus, crowned by God, the great and pacific 
emperor of the Romans ! ' After this proclamation the 
pontiff prostrated himself before him, and paid him ado- 
ration according to the custom established in the days of 
the old emperors ; and thenceforward Charles, giving up 
the title of patrician, bore that of emperor and Augus- 
tus." Charlemagne had now become emperor of France, 
of Germany, and of Italy. 



162 CHARLEMAGNE. 

But it is not only as a great warrior that Charlemagne 
is famous. His government was a model for those times, 
and he held his subjects, so diverse as to nationality and 
education, under a most wise and powerful authority ; and 
out of a chaos of different nations — the wild anarch}' of 
ruined Rome, and the ill-regulated force of barbaric 
hordes — he founded a monarchy strong in him alone, and 
though it fell at his death, each piece of his great empire 
possessed enough of the vitalizing force, which his mind 
and wisdom had given to it, to enable it to rise an empire 
by itself. So, though Charlemagne's kingdom could not 
be preserved by his successors, from that great power 
rose the separate empires of France, German}', and Italy. 
One of Charlemagne's humane acts was his care for the 
slaves in Gaul. At that time all the chiefs were warriors, 
while their lands were tilled by serfs, or slaves, who went 
with the land as part of the property, whether bought or 
captured. He made laws to protect the slaves as far as 
possible against unjust and cruel masters. 

Charlemagne was also fond of study. He learned 
Latin and Greek, and improved his native German lan- 
guage by inventing German words for the months and 
the winds. He paid great attention to astronomy and 
music, and in theological studies evinced a strong inter- 
est. He caused to be commenced the first Germanic 
grammar. But with all his learning there was one thing 
he could not accomplish, which was to write a good hand, 
though he zealously practiced the art, even putting his 
little tablets under his pillow that he might catch at any 
odd moments day or night to perfect his imperfect writ- 
ing. At whatever palace Charlemagne was residing, he 
always formed there a school called the School of the 
Palace, where many learned men were gathered together, 



CHA RLE MA GNE. 163 

and where members of the royal famil3-, inchuling Charle- 
magne himself, and his cliildren, took lessons in the 
different sciences, grammar, rhetoric, and theology. Two 
names are famous among these wise men, who became 
the particular advisers and confidants of Charlemagne, 
Alcuin and Eginhard, who afterwards became the biog- 
rapher of Charlemagne, and the adviser of his son Louis 
le Debonnaire. It was the custom for members of this 
school to assume other names than their own : thus 
Charlemagne was called David; Alcuin, Flaccus ; Angil- 
bert, Homer; and Eginhard, Bezaleel, — that nepliew of 
Moses to whom God had granted the gift of knowing how 
to work skilfully in wood and all materials needed for 
the ark and tabernacle. All of these scholars afterwards 
])ecame great dignitaries in tlie church. Ciiarlemagne 
was of a cheerful disposition, and fond of hunting and 
other sports. He was especially expert in swimming. 
He sometimes played jokes upon his chiefs and nobles, and 
the old monks of his time tell several stories regarding 
his sly Immor. At one time when he thought his cour- 
tiers were too much given to fine clothes, he commanded a 
party of them when decked out in their finest trappings, to 
follow iiim in the chase through the rain, mud, and bram- 
bles. He was of a tall figure, and though his dress was 
rich and gorgeous when the occasion demanded it, he was 
not fond of finery. His appearance is thus described by 
P^ginhard : — 

" Charlemagne was large and robust in person, his 
stature was lofty, though it did not exceed just propor- 
tion, for his height was not more than seven times the 
length of his foot. The summit of his head was round, 
his eyes large and bright, his nose a little long, beautiful 
white hair, and a smiling and pleasant expression. There 



164 CHA RLE MA ONE. 

reigned in his whole person, whether standing or seated, 
an air of grandeur and dignity ; and tliough his neck was 
thick and short, and his bod}^ corpulent, yet he was in 
other respects so well proportioned that these defects 
were not noticed. His walk was firm, and his whole 
appearance manly, but his clear voice did not quite har- 
monize with his appearance. His health was always 
good, except during the four years which preceded his 
death. He then had frequent attacks of fever, and was 
lame of one foot. In this time of suffering he treated 
himself more accordingly to his own fancies than by the 
advice of the physicians, wiiom he had come to dislike 
because they would have had him abstain from the roast 
meats he was accustomed to, and would have restricted 
him to boiled meats. His dress was that of his nation ; 
that is to say, of the P^ranks. He wore a shirt and 
drawers of linen, over them a tunic bordered with silken 
fringe, stockings fastened with narrow bands, and shoes. 
In winter, a coat of otter or martin fur covered his shoul- 
ders and breast. Over all he wore a long l)lue mantle." 

He would not adopt the short mantle worn by the later 
Franks, but preferred the long cloak of the ancient 
Franks, which made him a distmguished and royal-look- 
ing person amidst his short-cloaked courtiers. He was 
alwa^'s girded with his sword, which became so famous 
that it received the name of Joyeuse, whose hilt was 
of gold and silver, his girdle being also of gold. Upon 
solemn festive occasions this sword was replaced by one 
enriched with precious stones. After he became Emperor 
he sometimes wore the long tunic, the chlamys. and the 
sandals of the Romans. At great feasts or festivals his 
dress was embroidered with gold, and his shoes adorned 
with precious stones. His mantle was fastened with a 



CHARLEMAGNE. 165 

brooch of gold, and he wore upon his head a ghstenhio- 
diadem of gold and gems;' but his usual dress was sim- 
ple. He avoided all excesses at the ta,ble, particularly 
that of drinking, for lie abhorred drunkenness. While 
he was dining he liked to have histories or poems read to 
him. He took great pleasure in the works of St. Augus- 
tine. He was endowed with a natural eloquence whicii 
rendered his speech delightful. His chosen name of 
David was not inappropriate, for he was a founder and 
benefactor of the church, and was very devout in the out- 
ward observances of the Christian religion ; but his domes- 
tic life was an irretrievable blot upon his character, whicli 
no plea of the laxity of those times can remove. It is 
true that the same fault mars the greatness of Alexan- 
der, Julius Caesar, and other famous rulers ; but Alex- 
ander and C?esar were not Christians, while Charlemacrue 
stands forth as the great champion and upholder of the 
religion of the spotless Christ. Charlemagne caused to 
be erected at Aix-la-Chapelle a magnificent basilica, or 
chapel, which he adorned with gold and silver, and with 
screens and gates of brass from Rome, and marbles and 
columns from Ravenna. He always attended service here 
night and morning, and often arose to assist at some espe- 
cial worship in the night. He introduced great improve- 
ments in the lessons and the psalmody, and is said to 
have composed several h3^mns, among them the "Veni 
Creator Spiritus," that invocation of the Holy Spirit 
which is sung at ordinations. Charlemagne was always 
ready to help poor Christians, not only in his own king- 
dom, but in Syria, Egypt, in Africa, at Jerusalem, Alex- 
andria, Carthage, and elsewhere. Of all the holy places 
he had most veneration for the Church of St. Peter at 
Rome. He sent rich gifts of gold and silver and pre- 



166 CHARLEMAGNE. 

cions stones to that cathedral, for he desired to make it 
surpass all other churches in its decorations and riches. 
But he was only able to go four times during his reign of 
fortv-seven years, to visit that cherished place. Toward 
the end of his vigorous life and magnificent career, the 
Emperor Charlemagne met with severe family losses. In 
less than two years his sister, daughter, and his sons, the 
two Pepins, one of whom was a hunchback, died; and 
lastly his son Charles, whom he intended should be 
crowned emperor, also died, leaving only Louis and sev- 
eral daughters. But Louis was the worthiest of all the sons 
of Charlemagne to succeed his illustrious father. In the 
vear 813 Charlemagne, fearing that his end was drawing 
near, assembled all his chief men at Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
in a grand ceremonial in the chapel he caused his son to 
be declared emperor, bidding him take the diadem himself 
from the altar, and place it on his own head, whereupon 
Charlemagne exclaimed, " Blessed be the Lord, who hath 
granted me to see my son sitting on my throne ! " But 
he did not at that time resign the crown. Louis went 
back to his kingdom in Aquitaine ; and Charlemagne, in 
spite of his growing infirmities, continued through the 
autumn his usual hunting excursions, returning to Aix in 
November. In January Charlemagne was seized with a 
fever, but he determined to doctor himself, as was his 
usual method, which was to "starve" the fever. But 
pleuris}^ set in, and still refusing to be ministered to by 
physicians, on the seventh day after he had taken to his 
bed, having received communion, he expired about nine 
o'clock in the morning on the 28th of January, 814, in 
the seventy-first year of his age, and the forty-seventh 
year of his reign. He was buried with unusual grandeur. 
A large and beautifully carved sarcophagus of classical 



CHARLEMA GNE. \ 7 

workmanship, was lying empty in the basilica of Aix. 
But they placed Charlemagne in a large marble chair in 
the crypt beneath the dome of his great basilica. The 
chair was ornamented with gold, and Charlemagne was 
clad in his royal robes with his sparkling crown upon his 
head, and his royal sceptre in his hand, and the oood 
sword Joyeuse, which had served him in so many famous 
battles, was girded to his side, while his pilgrim's pouch 
was suspended from his girdle, and a copy of the Gospels 
was laid upon his knees. Thus was he seated on the 
throne chair, with his feet resting in the carved sarcopha- 
gus, as though the great emperor was not to be shut up 
in a coffin like common mortals, but even in death still 
sat upon his throne in royal state. Beneath the dome, 
on the stone which closed the entrance to the toml), was 
carved the following epitaph in Latin : — 

" In this tomb reposeth the body of Charles, great and 
orthodox emperor, who did gloriously extend the king- 
dom of the Franks, and did govern it happily for forty- 
seven years. He died at the age of seventy 3'ears, in the 
year of the Lord, 814, in the seventh year of the Indica- 
tion, on the fifth of the Kalends of February." 

This crypt was opened two hundred years afterwards 
by the Emperor Otho III., when he found the remains of 
Charlemagne, as described above. A huge black flag- 
stone now lies under the dome, bearing the inscription, 
'' Carolo Magno," and it is supposed to cover the entrance 
to the tomb of Charlemagne. Over it hangs a large 
golden candelabrum which the Emperor Barbarossa gave 
to burn above the grave. In the time of Barbarossa, the 
church enrolled the name of the great emperor in its 
Calendar as St. Charlemagne. 

No sovereign ever rendered greater service to the civil- 



168 CHARLEMAGNE. 

ized world than Charlemagne, by stopping in the north 
and south ,the flood of barbarians and Arabs, Paganism 
and Islamism. This was his great success, and although 
he ultimately failed in founding a permanent empire 
which should exist in unity and absolute power after his 
death, though at one time he seemed to be Caesar, 
Auo-ustus, and Constantine combined, his death ended 
his empire ; but he had opened the way for the Christian 
relio'ion and human liberty to establish other and more 
lasting governments. The illustrious French writer, 
Guizot, thus sums up the life and achievements of Charle- 
magne. '' Great men are at one and the same time in- 
struments and free agents in a general design which is 
infinitely above their ken, and which, even if a glimpse 
of it be caught, remains inscrutable to them, — the 
design of God towards mankind. Charlemagne had this 
singular good fortune, that his misguided attempt at im- 
perialism perished with him, whilst his salutary achieve- 
ment, the territorial security of Christian Europe, has 
been durable to the great honor, as well as great profit, of 
European civilization." 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 



169 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 

849-901 A.D. 

"An honest man's the noblest work of God." 

Pope, 

Q TORY and song imvc immortalized the romantic tradl^ 
f^ tions regarding the early inhabitants of the British 
realm, and although many of them are no doubt fabulous 
tales, the romantic history of Alfred the Great would be 
robbed of much of its weird fascination if no mention 
were made of these fantastic but cliarming traditions. 
King Alfred's reign was eight hundred years after the 
Christian Era. Authentic history takes us back through 
those eight hundred years to the time of Julius C^str 
and his invasion of Great Britain, and traditions carry 
us still farther back, for eight hundred years more, t^ 
the days of .Solomon. 

There is a story that at the close of the Trojan war 
whieli we have described in the life of Agamemnon, ^neas 
landed in Italy with a company of Trojans. They settled 
near the spot upon which Rome was afterwards bnilt. 
One day, while Brutus, the great-grandson of ^neas, 
was htmtmg in the forests, he accidentallv killed his father 
With an arrow. Brutus, fearing evil consequences from 
tins terrible accident, fled from Italy. Going to Greece, 
he collected a band of Trojans, and they made war upon 
a king named Pandrasus. Brutus conquered this kina 
but promised to make peace with him if he would ao-ree 
to provide a fleet of ships for Brutus, and give him"his 



170 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

daughter in marriage. This Pandrasus did, and Brutus 
sailed with his bride and fleet, until they arrived at a de- 
serted island, upon which they found the ruins of a city 
and an ancient temple of Diana, where there still remained 
an image of the goddess. 

The story goes that Brutus consulted this oracle of 
Diana, and received the following answer : — 

"Far to the West, in the ocean wide, 
Beyond the realm of Gaul, a land there lies ; 
Sea-girt it lies, where giants dwelt of old. 
Now void, it fits thy people ; thither bend 
Thy course ; there shalt thou find a lasting home." 

Brutus followed this direction, and proceeded westward 
through the Mediterranean Sea. He arrived at the Pil- 
lars of Hercules, which was the name given in those days 
to the E-ock of Gibraltar, and then he turned northward 
and coasted along Spain. At length they arrived on the 
shores of Britain. They found the island covered with 
rich verdure, and in the forests were mau}^ wild beasts 
and the remnants of a race of giants. 

Brutus and his forces drove the wild beasts into the 
mountains of Wales and Scotland, and killed the giants, 
and seized upon the island as their own. Man}' wild 
adventures are told of his successors, down to the time 
of the invasion of Julius Caesar. Such is the story in 
brief of the earl}- Britons. 

After the conquest by Caesar, the Romans retained pos- 
session of the island for four hundred years. During 
this time there were man}^ rebellions in the various prov- 
inces, until at last the Britons submitted to their sway. 
Now another enemy advanced against this picturesque 
island. The Picts and Scots, hordes of lawless bar- 
barians, who inhabited the mountains of Ireland and 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 171 

Scotland, made continual expeditions for plunder into 
the fair land of the Britons. At length one of the 
Roman emperors named Severus, visited the island of 
Britain, and endeavored to conquer the Picts and Scots. 
It was at this time that the famous Wall of Severus was 
built. The wall extended across the island, from the 
mouth of the Tyne on the German Ocean, to the Sol way 
Frith, nearlv seventv miles. This wall was a oood de- 
fence against the barbarians, as long as Roman soldiers 
remained to guard it. But about two centuries after the 
time of Severus, the Roman soldiers were required by 
their own government at home, and the Britons were left 
to fight with the Picts and Scots alone. During this 
time another brave and warlike race had arisen. The 
Anglo-Saxons had now become powerful sea-rulers on 
the German Ocean and Baltic Sea. They delighted in 
storms and tempests, and cared not whether it was sum- 
mer or winter when they sailed the seas, so brave and 
fearless were they. They would build small vessels of 
osiers, covering them with skins, and in these frail boats 
they courageously sailed amidst the rough winds and 
foaming surges of the German Ocean, in search of con- 
quest and wild adventure. If they fought they con- 
quered, and if they pursued their enemies they were sure 
to overtake them, and if they retreated they successfully 
made their escape. Neither wnnds, waves, nor enemies 
could quell this adventurous and brave race, which was 
fast rising into power and renown. They were clothed 
in loose and flowing garments, and wore their hair long, 
floating about their shoulders. They had much skill in 
fabricating arms of superior workmanship, which gave 
them a great advantage over their enemies. The landing 
of a few boat-loads of these determined and fearless 



172 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

Anglo-Saxons, on a small island near the mouth of the 
Thames, was an event which marks an important epoch 
in English history, as it was the real beginning of British 
o-reatness and power. The names of the commanders 
who headed the expedition of the Anglo-Saxons which 
first landed in Britain, were Hengist and Horsa. They 
were brothers. The island where they landed was called 
Thanet. The name of the king of Britain at this time 
was Vortigern. When the Anglo-Saxons arrived, his 
kingdom was distracted by the constant incursions of the 
Picts and Scots. In this danger, Vortigern appealed to 
the Anglo-Saxons for help. He offered to give them a 
large tract of territory in the part of the island where 
they had landed, if they would aid him in liis contest 
with his enemies. Hengist and Horsa agreed to this pro- 
posal, and they thereupon engaged in battle with the 
Picts and Scots, and defeated them, and they were driven 
back to their mountains in the north. The Anglo-Sax- 
ons now established themselves in the part of tiie island 
assigned to them, and it is related that Hengist gave his 
daughter Rowena in marriage to King Vortigern, to 
strengthen the alliance more closely. At last the Britons 
became alarmed at the increasing power of the Anglo- 
Saxons, and the result was a fierce contest. It is related 
that King Vortigern, with three hundred of his oflficers, 
were invited by Hengist to a feast, and a quarrel liaving 
arisen, an affray occurred in which the Britons were all 
killed, except Vortigern who was taken prisoner, and was 
only ransomed by ceding three whole provinces to his 
captors. 

The famous King Arthur, whose Knights of the Round 
Table have been so celebrated in fable and song, was a 
king of the Britons during these wars between his people 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 173 

and the Saxons. He is said to have performed marvel- 
lous exploits of strength and valor. He was of pro- 
digious size, and undaunted courage. He slew giants, 
killed the most ferocious wild beasts, gained many splen- 
did victories, and is said to have made long expeditions 
into foreign countries, once even going to Jerusalem on 
a pilgrimage to obtain the Holy Cross. He was after- 
wards killed in a combat with his nephew, who had 
gained the affections of Arthur's wife during his absence. 
Arthur had been a deadly enemy of the Saxons. He 
fought twelve great pitched battles with them, in every 
one of which he gained the victory. It is related that he 
killed with his own hand, four hundred and seventy men 
in one of these contests. The landing of the Saxons, 
under Hengist and Horsa, is supposed to have been in 
the year 449. It was more than two hundred years after 
this before the Britons were entirely subdued, and the 
Saxon power became supreme. In one or two centuries 
more the Saxons had, in their turn, to meet an implaca- 
ble and powerful enemy. These new invaders were the 
Danes. 

The territory of Britain was divided into seven or eight 
Saxon kingdoms, each under a separate king. This 
power is known in historj- as the Saxon Heptarchy. 
The Danes were not exclusively the natives of Denmark. 
They came from all the shores of the Northern and Bal- 
tic Seas. They were a race of bold naval adventurers, 
as the Saxons themselves had been two or three centuries 
before. They were banded together in large hordes, each 
ruled by a chieftain, called a sea-king. One of the most 
famous of these sea-kings was named Raonar Lodbroo;. 
His father was a prince of Norway, and Ragnar had 
married a Danish princess, and had acquired a sort of 



174 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

right to a Danish kingdom, which right was disputed by 
one Harald. The Franks aided Harald in this contest, 
and Ragnar was defeated. But he now brought the other 
sea-kings under his control, and raising a hirge force, he 
invaded France, and landing at Rouen he marched to 
Paris. The king of the Franks finding himself com- 
pletely in his power, bought off the sea-kings by paying 
a large sum of money, and Ragnar and his hordes re- 
turned to the Baltic Sea with riches and wide renown for 
their daring adventures. Ragnar afterwards invaded 
Spain, and finally grew bold enough to attack the Anglo- 
Saxons on the island of Britain. For this contest, Rag- 
nar had prepared two enormous ships, and, filling* them 
with picked men, he sailed down the coast of Scotland 
until he reached Northumbria. Here he encountered a 
large force of Saxons under their king Ella. A terrible 
struggle ensued. Ragnar was defeated and taken pris- 
oner, and was afterwards put to death in a barbarous 
manner by the Saxons. They filled a den with poison- 
ous snakes, and drove the captive Ragnar amongst these 
horrid reptiles, by whose venomous fangs he was killed. 
In 851 a large horde of Danes landed on the island of 
Thanet, and afterwards advanced boldly up the Thames. 
They plundered London and Canterbury, and marched 
thence into one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, called 
Mercia. Although the Danes were there defeated by a 
large force of Saxons, new hordes were continually arriv- 
ino-, and becoming more formidable. At length an im- 
mence force of Danes landed, under the command of 
Guthrum and Hubba. This horde was led by eight 
kings and twenty earls. Hubba was one of Ragnar's 
sons, and many of the horde were his relatives and 
friends, who swore venojeance for his cruel death. It 




THE NORTHMEN INVADING FRANCE. 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 175 

was at this time that young Alfred appears prominently 
upon the scene of English history. 

Alfred was the youngest child of Ethel wolf, king of 
the West Saxons. Under Egbert, the father of Ethel- 
wolf, the kingdoms of the West Saxons had been united ; 
and Egbert is called king of the English, he havino- 
iiiven the name of Anglia to the whole kinodom. 

When young Alfred was fiye years old, his father sent 
him to Rome to see the Pope, and to be anointed by him 
as king of the West Saxons ; as Ethelwolf intended to 
pass oyer his elder sons and give his throne to his favor- 
ite son Alfred. This journey was made with great pomp 
and splendor ; and a large train of nobles and ecclesias- 
tics accompanied the young prince, who was received 
with splendid entertainments as he passed through 
France. Two years after this journey, Alfred's father 
Ethelwolf determined himself to go to Rome, and his 
favorite son accompanied him. Ethelwolf placed his 
elder sons in command of his affairs at home, and with 
a magnificent retinue crossed the channel, and landed in 
France on his way to Rome. King Ethelwolf and Prince 
Alfred were received with great distinction b}' King 
Charles of France, and after a short stay in the French 
court they proceeded to Rome. The king of England 
carried most costly presents to the Pope. Ethelwolf had 
been educated for the monastery, as he was a younger 
son, but the death of his father and elder brother placed 
him on the throne instead of in an ecclesiastical office. 
Therefore his religious inclinations were always very 
strong, and this pilgrimage to Rome was made as a re- 
ligious ceremony as well as for political objects, and his 
offerings were very magnificent. One gift was a crown of 
pure gold, weighing four pounds. Another was a sword 



176 ALFRED THE ORE AT. 

richly mounted in gold. There were also iniiuy vessels 
of "old and silver, and several robes richly adorned. 
Kino- Ethelwolf also distributed money to all the inhabit- 
ants of Rome ; giving gold to the nobles and clergy, and 
silver to the people. So great was his munificence, and 
so maonificent was his courtly retinue, that this visit 
attracted universal attention, and made the little Alfred, 
on whose especial account the journey was performed, an 
object of great interest. King Ethelwolf remained a 
vear at Rome, to give young Alfred the benefit of the 
advantao-es of the schools which had been established 
there. As they returned home through France, King 
Ethelwolf was married to the young daughter of the king 
of France, Princess Judith, who was only twelve or 
fourteen years of age. The mother of Alfred had died 
about three years before, and although this marriage 
occasioned much trouble in the kingdom of Ethelwolf, 
the young bride Judith was a kind and affectionate step- 
mother to Alfred, who was at this time about eight 3'ears 
of age. The story is related, that on one occasion Juditli 
was showing Alfred and his older brothers a manuscript 
of some Saxon poems. Although much care had been 
bestowed upon the education of Alfred, he could not yet 
read. Indeed, very few even of the princes or kings in 
those davs ever learned to read. Readino- was considered 
as a necessar}' art, only for those who were to become 
professional teachers. Alfred expressed so much delight 
in this manuscript, which was beautifully illuminated with 
hand drawings, that Judith promised the volume to the 
one who should first learn to read it. Alfred's brothers, 
although much older, did not aspire to this honor, and 
Alfred made such diligent use of his time, that with the 
help of his teachers he was soon able to read the poems 



ALFRED THE GREAT. I77 

fluently, and so claimed and received the prize. About 
two years after, the father of Alfred died, and Judith be- 
came the wife of Ethelbald, the eldest brother of Alfred, 
who succeeded to the throne. He died soon after, how- 
ever, and Judith returned to France, where she married 
a Flemish noble, whom her father afterwards made Count 
of Flanders. We cannot stop to trace the life of Judith 
any farther, but we must mention that Alfred the Great 
afterwards gave his daughter Elfrida in marriage to the 
second count of Flanders, who was the eldest son of 
Judith. Through this marriage the English sovereigns 
trace their descent from Alfred the Great. 

There is a strange story connected with the youth of Al- 
fred, which is best given in the quaint language of one of 
the biographers of this good and brave king. "As he 
advanced through the years of infancy and youth, his 
form appeared more comely than those of his brothers, 
and in look, speech, and manners he was more graceful 
than they. He was already the darling of the people, who 
felt that in wisdom and other qualities he surpassed all 
the royal race. Alfred, then, being a youth of this fair 
promise, while training himself diligently in all such learn- 
ing as he had the means of acquiring, and especially in 
his own mother tongue and the poems and songs which 
formed the chief part of Anglo-Saxon literature, was not 
unmindful of the culture of his body, and was a zealous 
practiser of hunting in all its branches, and hunted with 
great perseverance and success. But before all things he 
was wishful to strengthen his mind in the keeping of 
God's commandments ; and finding that worldly desires 
and proud and rebellious thoughts which the devil, who is 
ever jealous of the good, is apt to breed in the minds of 
the young, were likely to have the mastery of him, he 



■^r-g ALFRED THE GREAT. 

used often to rise at cock-crow in the early mornings, and 
repairing to some church or holy place, there cast himself 
before God in prayer, that he might do nothing contrary 
to His holy will. But finding himself still hard tempted, 
he began at such times to pray, as he lay prostrate before 
the altar, that God in his great mercy would strengthen 
his mind and will by some sickness, such as would be of 
use to him in the subduing of his nature, but would not 
show itself outwardly, or render him powerless or con- 
temptible in worldly duties, or less able to benefit his 
people. For King Alfred from his earliest years held in 
great dread leprosy and blindness, and every disease 
which would make a man useless or contemptible in the 
conduct of affairs. And when he had often, and with 
much fervor, prayed to this effect, it pleased God to afflict 
him with a very painful disease, which lay upon him with 
little respite until he was in his twentieth year. At this 
age he became betrothed to her who was afterwards his 
^^^ife, Elswitha, the daughter of Ethelred, the Earl of the 
Gaini in Mercia. Alfred, then, at that time being on a 
Yisit to Cornwall for the sake of hunting, turned aside 
from his sport, as his custom often was, to pray in a cer- 
tain chapel in which was buried the body of St. Guerir. 
There he entreated God that he would exchange the sick- 
ness with which he had been up to that time afflicted for 
some other disease, which should in like manner not ren- 
der him useless or contemptible. And so, finishing his 
prayers, he got up and rode away, and soon after per- 
ceived within himself that he was made whole of his old 
sickness. So his marriage was celebrated in Mercia, to 
which came great numbers of people, and there was feast- 
ing which lasted through the night as well as by day. In 
the midst of which revelry Alfred was attacked by sudden 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 179 

and violent pain, the cause of which neither the}^ who were 
then present, nor indeed any physician in after years, 
could rightly ascertain. At the time, however, some 
believed that it was the malignant enchantment of some 
person amongst the guests ; others, that it was the special 
spite of the devil ; others again, that it was the old sick- 
ness come back on him, or a strange kind of fever. In 
an}' case, from that day until his forty-fourth year he was 
subject to this same sickness, which frequently returned, 
giving him the most acute pain, and, as he thought, mak- 
ing him useless for every duty. But how far the king was 
from thinking rightly in this respect, those who read of 
the burdens that were laid upon him, and the work which 
he accomplished, can best judge for themselves." Such 
is this quaint account of Alfred's religious devotion, and 
his patient endurance of suffering. 

According to the will of Ethelwolf , the father of Alfred, 
Ethelbald, his eldest son, was to retain tlie throne of Wes- 
sex until his death, when he should be succeeded by his 
two youngest brothers, Ethelred and Alfred, in succes- 
sion ; while Ethelbert, the second son, should be king of 
Kent, Sussex, and Surrey. Plis estates and other prop- 
erty were divided amongst his children. From 85<S until 
860 Ethelred and Alfred lived in Kent with their brother 
Ethelbert. Upon the death of Ethelbald in 860, Ethel- 
red and Alfred both waived their rights, and allowed 
Ethelbert to ascend the throne of Wessex. In ^QQ Ethel- 
bert also died, and Ethelred now became the sovereign, 
and Alfred the crown prince. Alfred was very fond of 
study, and also very devout, as the above description 
from the old annals shows. During his youth he had 
gathered together the Services of the Hours, called Cele- 
brationes Horarum^ with many of the Psalms, which he had 



jgQ ALFRED THE GREAT. 

written in a small handbook that he always carried with 
him • and on battle-field, or exiled in the wild forests, or 
ruling the nation as a proud king, this little book of devo- 
tion was always within reach, and constantly perused. 

Within six weeks after his marriage he was called to 
arms by the invasion of the Danes, already mentioned, 
under Guthrum and Hubba ; and within a few short 
months his brother P:thelred had been killed in battle, he 
himself had become king, and nine pitched battles had 
been fought in his own kingdom of Wessex under his 

leadership. 

To understand more clearly the character of the Danes, 
a sUght description of their weird and fantastic religious 
ideas is necessary. Woden was the chief figure in their 
ancient mythology. He was the god of battles, ^^ who 
o-iveth victory, who re-animates warriors, who nameth 
those who are to be slain." This Woden had been an 
inspired teacher as well as a conqueror, and had given to 
these wild Northmen a Scandinavian alphabet, and songs 
of battle. Their traditions related that Woden had led 
theni from the shores of the Black Sea to the fiords of 
Norway, the far shores of Iceland. Having departed 
from them, he drew their hearts after him, and lived ever 
after m Asgard, the garden of the gods. There in his 
own great hall, Valhalla, the hall of Odin, he dwelt. 
And it was believed that the brave slain in battle should 
be permitted to go to Valhalla, and feast there with the 

mighty Odin. 

There were also supposed to be other gods in this hall 
of Valhalla. Chief of these was Balder, the sun-god, 
white, beautiful, benignant ; and Thor, the thunder-god, 
with terrible smiting hammer and awful brows, engaged 
mainly in expeditious into Jotun land, a chaotic world. 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 181 

the residence of the giants, or devils, known as frost, fire, 
tempest, and the like. Thor's attendant was Thealfi, 
or manual labor. This thunder-god was described to be 
full of unwieldly strength, simplicity, and rough humor. 
There w^as supposed to be a tree of life also in the unseen 
world, — Igdrasil, wdth its roots in Hela, the kingdom of 
death, at the foot of which sit the three Nomas, known 
as the past, present, and future. They also believed that 
there would some day be a struggle of the gods and Jo- 
tuns, or dwellers in the chaotic world, and that at last the* 
gods, Jotuns, and Time himself would all sink down into 
darkness, from which in due season there should issue 
forth a new heaven and a new earth, in which a higher 
god and supreme justice shall at last reign. 

So their religion was only a religion of war ; and, to be 
brave in battle, they thought the most pleasing devotion 
they could show to their warlike gods. So this contest 
between the Danes and Saxons was not only one for the 
possession of the fruitful land of England, but was a 
contest between Paganism and Christianity. King Alfred 
was a devout Christian, and although the Saxons' ideas of 
religion were mixed with much superstition and bigotry', 
they believed in the true God, Jehovah, and in salvation 
through the redemption of Jesus Christ ; although the 
pure Gospel, as taught by Christ himself when on the 
earth more than eight hundred 3^ears before this time, had 
become mixed with all sorts of legends of saints and 
marvellous stories fabricated by the priests, and handed 
down as traditions among the people, whose ignorance 
placed them completely under the sway of the only class 
of men who were educated sufficientl}^ to read and write, 
and by whom all copies were made of such books as they 
possessed at that day, which consisted only of rolls of 



182 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

parchment, penned laboriously by hand in the various 
monasteries, scattered throughout the different kingdoms 
of the then civilized world. The most famous battle 
between the Saxons and the Danes is known as the 
battle of Ashdown, and is thus described in the old Eng- 
lish annals : — 

"At early dawn the hosts were on foot. Alfred 
marched up promptly with his men to give battle, but 
King Ethelred stayed long time in his tent at prayer hear- 
hig the mass. Now the Christians had determined that 
King Ethelred with his men should fight the two pagan 
kings, and that Alfred his brother, with his men, should 
take the chance of war against the earls. Things being 
so arranged, the king remained long time in prayer, while 
the pagans pressed on swiftly to the fight. Then Alfred, 
though holding the lower command, could no longer sup- 
port the onslaught of the enemy without retreating, or 
charging upon them without waiting for his brother. A 
moment of fearful anxiety was this foi^he young prince, 
who thus no doubt mused : ' Bagsac and the two Sidrocs 
at the top of the down with double my numbers, already 
overlapping my flanks: Ethelred still at mass — dare I 
go up at them? In the name of God and St. Cuthbert, 
yes ! ' and with a strong heart, brave for this great crisis, 
Alfred puts himself at the head of his men, and leads 
them up the slope against the whole pagan host, ' With 
the rush of a wild boar.' For he too relied on the help 
of God. He formed his men in a dense phalanx to meet 
the foe, which was never broken in that long fight. Mass 
being over, Ethelred comes up to the help of his Ijrother, 
and the battle raged along the whole hillside. The 
pagans occupied the higher ground, and the Christians 
came up from below. There was also in that place, a 








mini iff' 






■Ill 



ilia 

m 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 183 

single stunted thorn-tree. Round this tree the opposing 
hosts came together with loud shouts from all sides, the 
one party to pursue their wicked course, the other to fight 
for their lives, their wives and children, and their country. 
And, when both sides had fought long and bravely, at 
last the pagans, by God's judgment, gave way, being no 
longer able to abide the Christian onslaught ; and after 
losing a great part of their army, broke in shameful flight. 
One of their two kings and five earls were there slain, 
together with many thousand pagans, who covered with 
their bodies the whole plain of Ashdown. And all the 
pagan host pursued its flight, not only until night, but 
through the next day, even until they reached the strong- 
hold from which they had come forth. The Christians 
followed, slaying all they could reach until dark. Nei- 
ther before nor since was ever such slaughter known since 
the Saxons first gained England by their arms." 

Alfred's decision and promptness, in that time of emer- 
gency, not only won the day, but hardened his own nerve 
to flint, and his judgment, amid the clash of arms, to 
steel. Through all the weary years of battle and misfor- 
tune that followed, there was no sign of indecision and 
faint-heartedness. He had conquered fear and hesitancy 
there, as valiantly as he had conquered temptations to 
evil in his earlier youth. About two months after the 
battle of Ashdown, Ethelred and Alfred fought for the 
last time together, against their unwearied foes. In this 
contest Ethelred was mortally wounded, and died soon 
after, and was buried by Alfred with kingly honors in 
Wimborne Minster. 

Alfred, now at the age of twenty-three, ascended the 
tlirone of his fathers, which seemed at that time tottering, 
and was not an inheritance to be desired in the vear of 



184 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

871, when Alfred succeeded bis brother. It would not 
be surprising if for a moment be lost heart and hope, and 
allowed himself to doubt whether God would by his hand 
deliver his afflicted people from their relentless foes. In 
the eight pitched battles which had been fought with the 
pagan army, the flower of the youth of the Saxon nation 
had fallen. Kent, Sussex, and Surrey were at the mercy 
of the Danes. London had l)een pillaged and was in 
ruins, and several provinces in his own AVessex had been 
desolated. The Danes were even then striking into new 
districts, and if the rich lauds yet unplundered were to 
be saved from their voracious grasp, it would only be 
by prompt and decisive action. 

A month has passed since the death of Alfred's brother 
and his succession to this tottering throne. Alfred, with 
the greatest difficulty, collects enough men to take the 
field openly. The first great battle that Alfred fought, 
as king, was at Wilton. At first Alfred's troops carried 
all before them, but the tide turned in favor of the Danes, 
and Alfred and the Saxons were driven from the field. 
There was immense loss upon both sides, and a treaty 
was agreed upon between Alfred and Hubba, the Danish 
chieftain. B3' this treaty, the Danes were to retire from 
Alfred's dominions, provided that he would not interfere 
with their conquests in other parts of England. Alfred 
has been censured for making this treaty ; but he was 
obliged to choose between protection for his own realm, 
and perhaps the entire destruction and overthrow of not 
only his dominions, but of all England. He had no 
power to aid others, and therefore endeavored to protect, 
if possible, his own subjects. The Danes then went to 
Mercia. The king of Mercia was Buthred, the brother- 
in law of Alfred. Buthred paid the Danes large sums of 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 185 

money to leave his kingdom. The Danes departed for 
a while, but treacherously returned, and were again 
bought off. Hubba scarcely left the kingdom this time, 
but spent the money received, and then went to plunder- 
ing as before, regardless of all promises. Buthred, in 
despair, fled the country and went to Rome, where he 
died soon after of grief. The Danes then took posses- 
sion of Mercia, and set over the people a king from whom 
they demanded an annual tribute. In the meantime, new 
hordes of Danes arrived in England ; and one place after 
another was plundered b}^ them, and they obtained pos- 
session of the town of Exancester (now Exeter), which 
was a great loss to Alfred. King Alfred then determined 
to meet the Danes upon their own element ; and he built 
and equipped a small fleet, and was successful in his first 
encounter with his enemies, having defeated a fleet of 
Danish ships in the channel, and having captured one of 
the largest of their vessels. 

But after all, Alfred gained no decisive victor}- over his 
foes. He then tried to bind the Danes by Christian 
oaths, in making a treaty with them. The Danes were 
accustomed to swear by a certain ornament which they 
wore, when they wished to impose a very solemn religious 
oath ; and to swear by this bracelet was to place them- 
selves under the most solemn obligations they could 
assume. Alfred, however, was not satisfied with this 
pagan ceremony, but obliged them, in one treaty, to 
swear by certain Christian relics, which were held in 
great awe and sacredness by the Saxons. But the 
Danes broke their treaties with the most reckless defi- 
ance ; and, as years passed, Alfred found his army 
broken, his resources exhausted, his towns and castles 
taken, until about eight years after his coronation at 



186 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

Winchester, as monarch of the most powerful of all the 
Saxon kingdoms, he found himself unable to resist the 
further attacks of the Danes, who had come over in fresh 
hordes, and captured his kingdom of Wessex ; which 
calamity Alfred was powerless to prevent. 

The Saxon chieftains and nobles fled in terror, and 
Alfred himself, with only one or two trusty friends, 
retired to the vast forests, which skirted the remote 
western frontiers of his once proud realm. It was during 
these homeless wanderings that the incident is said to 
have occurred, which has ever since been related of tliis 
bitter experience of want and misery in the life of 
Alfred the Great. The story is, that Alfred, wear}^ and 
hungry, sought shelter in the miserable hut of a cow-herd, 
who gave him such poor fare as his lowly lot allowed. 
Alfred, while remaining with these simple folks, was one 
day engaged in mending his arrows, when the cow-herd's 
wife, totally unconscious of the rank and station of her 
guest, requested him, in no polite terms, to watch her 
cakes which were baking in the coals, while she em- 
ployed herself in other labors. King Alfred, absorbed 
in his sorrowful musings, forgot the injunctions of the 
ill-natured woman, and so allowed her cakes to burn ; 
which, when she perceived, she gave him a good scolding ; 
saying, " You man ! you will not turn the bread you see 
burning, but you will be very glad to eat it when it is 
done!" This unlucky woman little thought she was 
addressing the great King Alfred. 

Alfred, though restless and wretched in his apparently 
hopeless seclusion, bore his privations with patience and 
fortitude, and did not cease to plan some wa}' by which 
he might reorganize his forces and rescue his country 
from the ruin into which it had fallen. Alfred now estab- 



1 




ALFRED AND THE CAKES. 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 187 

lished himself at a place called Ethelne}' ; and, having 
gradually collected a few followers, they built a kind of 
fortress, where Alfred's family at length joined him, and 
to which numbers of his old troops began to repair. 
The following incident is recorded in the old annals con- 
cerning this time in King Alfred's life. It was very difti- 
cult to supply his little garrison with food, and sometimes 
they found themselves in sore want. At one time the 
provisions in the house were nearly exhausted, and to add 
to their distress, it was also in the winter. All of Alfred's 
little band having gone away with their fishing apparatus 
and bows and arrows in the hope of securing some food, 
Alfred was left alone with onlv one attendant. Kino- 
Alfred was sitting reading, when a beggar came to the 
door and asked for food. Alfred, looking up from his 
book, inquired of his attendant what food there was in the 
house. It was found that there was onh' a single loaf 
of bread remaining, and a little wine in a pitcher. This 
would not be half enough for their own wants, should the 
hunting party return unsuccessful. Alfred ordered half 
of the loaf to be given to the stranger ; but when he had 
been served he was seen no more, and the loaf remained 
whole, as though none had been taken from it, and the 
pitcher was now full to the brim. Alfred, meantime, had 
turned to his reading, over which he fell asleep, and 
dreamed that St. C'uthbert stood b}- him and told him it 
was he who had been his guest ; and that God had seen 
his afflictions and those of his people, which were now 
about to end, in token whereof his people would return 
that day from their expedition with a great take of fish. 
And while Alfred yet mused on this strange dream from 
which he had awakened, his servants came in, bringing 
fish enough to have fed an army. The legend also goes 



188 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

on to say, that on the next morning King Alfred went 
forth in the forests and wound his horn thrice, which drew 
to him before noon five hundred men. Another story is 
told of the manner in which King Alfred discovered the 
number and power of his enemies' forces. It is said that 
he assumed the garb of a minstrel, and with one attend- 
ant visited the camp of the Dane Guthrum. Here lie 
stayed, amusing the Danish king and nobles with his 
songs and harp, boldly venturing into their very tents, 
until he had learned all he desired to know concerning 
their plans. 

Whereupon he returned to Ethelney ; and the time hav- 
ing arrived for a great effort, he sent word to his people 
to meet him at a place called P^gbert's Stone. Here, on 
the 12th of May, 878, King Alfred met his gathered 
forces, and losing no time, moved forward toward Guth- 
rum's camp. Alfred encamped for the night on an emi- 
nence from which he could watch the movements of his 
enemies. That night, as he was sleeping in his tent, he 
had a remarkable dream. St. Neot appeared to him, and 
told him to have no fear of the immense army of pagans 
whom he was about to encounter on the morrow, as God 
had taken him under his special protection, having ac- 
cepted his penitence for all his faults ; he might now go 
forward into the battle without fear, as God was about to 
give him the victory over all his enemies. 

The king related this dream to his army the next morn- 
ing, and the men were inspired with new ardor and enthu- 
siasm as Alfred led them to the camp where their enemies 
lay ; for it was Alfred's intention to surprise the Danes. 
The Saxons advanced to the attack ; and the Danes, sur- 
prised and terror-stricken, soon began to yield. At last 
the flight among the pagans became general. They were 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 189 

pursued b}' Alfred's victorious columns. The retreating 
army was in a short time reduced to a small force, which, 
with Guthrum at their head, reached a castle, where they 
took refuge. Guthrum, shut up in this castle, was now 
besieged by Alfred's forces ; and when many of his men 
were raving in the delirium of famine and thirst, or dying 
in dreadful agony, he could resist no longer, but surren- 
dered to Alfred. Thus King Alfred was once more in 
possession of his kingdom. The treaty which Alfred now 
made with the Danes evinces his generous Christian for- 
giveness ; and perhaps even the pagan Guthrum. in accept- 
ing the terms proposed, was influenced by emotions of 
gratitude and admiration for the example of Christian 
^■irtue which Alfred exhi])ited. As the Danes had now 
become so interminoled with the Saxons bv their lono- 
residence in England and frequent intermarriages, Alfred 
determined to expel only the armed forces from his domin- 
ions, allowing those peaceably disposed to remain in quiet 
possession of such lands in other parts of the island as 
they already occupied. Instead, therefore, of treating 
Guthrum with harshness and severity as a captive enemy, 
he told him that he was willing to give him his liberty, 
and to regard him, on certain conditions, as a friend and 
an ally, and to allow him to reign as king over that part 
of England which his countrymen already possessed. The 
conditions were that Guthrum was to go away with his 
forces out of Alfred's kingdom under solemn oaths never 
to return ; that he was to give hostages for the faithful fulfil- 
ment of these stipulations ; and that Guthrum should be- 
come a convert to Christianity, and publicly avow his adhe- 
sion to the Saxon faith by being baptized in the presence of 
the leaders of both armies in the most open and solemn 
manner. These conditions were accepted, and some weeks 



190 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

after the surrender, the baptism was performed in the pres- 
ence of many chieftains of both nations. Guthrum's Chris- 
tian name which he received at this ceremony was Ethelstan. 
Kino- Alfred was his god-father. The various ceremonies 
connected with the baptism were protracted through sev- 
eral days, and were followed by a number of festivities 
and public rejoicings. The admission of the pagan chief- 
tain into the Christian church did not mark, perhaps, any 
real change in his personal opinions, but it prepared the 
way for the reception of the Christian faith b}^ his follow- 
ers ; and Alfred, in leading Guthrum to the baptismal 
font, was achieving, in the estimation of all England, 
France, and Rome, a far greater and nobler victory than 
when he conquered his enemies on the field of battle. A 
full and formal treaty of peace was now concluded be- 
tween the two sovereigns ; for Guthrum received the title 
of king, and was to hold a separate kingdom in the do- 
minions assigned to him. Guthrum endeavored to keep 
this treaty faithfull}*, and whenever other parties of Danes 
came upon the coast of England, the}' found no favor or 
assistance from him against the Saxons. 

The generosity and nobleness of mind displayed in his 
treatment of Guthrum made a great impression on the 
world at that time, and has never ceased to throw a halo 
of glory around the memory of this good and great king. 
Many stories are told to illustrate the kindness of Alfred 
the Great. It is said that once, while hunting in the 
forest with a party, he heard the cries of a child, which 
seemed to come from the air above their heads. It was 
found, after much searching, that the sounds proceeded 
from an eagle's nest in the top of a lofty tree. On 
climbing to the nest, it was discovered that a child had 
been carried by the eagle to its nest, and the infant was 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 191 

screaming with pain and terror. Alfred ordered the boy 
to be brought to his castle, and not being able to find the 
parents of the child, he adopted him as his own son, gaA^e 
him a good education, and provided for him well when he 
grew to manhood. King Alfred manifested great inter- 
est in the arts of peace, notwithstanding the warlike 
influences and habits of his life. He was the ruler of a 
race capable of appreciating intelligence, order, justice, 
and system ; and, foreseeing the future power of this peo- 
ple, his chief attention during all the years of his reign 
was devoted to their advancement in learnino- settino- 
them an example in his own case by pressing forward 
diligently in his own studies, even in the midst of his 
overwhelming cares. It was not possible in those days 
to educate the masses, as there were no books ; but 
Alfred made great efforts to promote the intellectual 
improvement of his people, which was all tlie more re- 
markable at that time when all other monarchs were 
ambitious only of their own power and personal glor}'. 
King Alfred wrote and translated many books, which 
were copied and, so far as it was possible, circulated 
amongst those who could read them. These writings of 
King Alfred exerted a wide influence. They remained in 
manuscript until the art of printing was invented, when 
many of them were printed. Some of the original manu- 
scripts may still be seen in various English museums. 
One of the greatest of King Alfred's measures was the 
founding of the great university of Oxford. He also 
repaired the castles, which had become dilapidated in the 
wars. He rebuilt the ruined cities, organized govern- 
ments for them, restored the monasteries, and took pains 
to put men of learning and piety in charge of them. He 
revised the laws of his kingdom. Through all his reign. 



192 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

his desire was to lay lasting foundations for the perma- 
nent prosperity of his realm. His own life was governed 
by fixed principles of justice and of duty ; and his calm, 
patient, unselfish character gave him a wide influence 
over his people, and made him a shining example of the 
truths he endeavored to impress upon them. King Alfred 
invented a plan for marking the different hours of the 
day by the burning of wax candles, so exactly made as to 
size that they would each burn a certain fixed time. 
The candles were each a foot long, and would burn four 
hours. They were divided into inches by marks upon 
them, and each inch would last twenty minutes. A large 
number of these candles were prepared, and a person was 
appointed to keep a succession of them burning in a 
chapel, and to ring bells to designate the successive 
periods of time denoted by their burning. There was 
one difficulty, however, which interfered somewhat with 
their exactness, which was that the blowing of any slight 
breeze or draught would make the burning uncertain. 
To obviate this trouble, King Alfred contrived a kind of 
lantern made of sheets of horn so thin that they were 
almost transparent. A plate of horn was set in each of 
the four sides of a box, which was fastened over the can- 
dle, thus forming a sort of rude lantern. This was the 
first lantern in England, and King Alfred is generally 
credited with being their first inventor ; but as Diogenes, 
the Greek philosopher, was said to have carried a lantern 
in the old story, the English lantern of King Alfred may 
not have been the earliest ever invented. Alfred the 
Great was very systematic about the employment of his 
own time. He was accustomed to give one-third of the 
twenty-four hours to sleep and refreshment, one-third to 
business, and one-third to religious duties. Under this last 



ALFRED THE GREAT. 193 

head was probably included study, writing, and the man- 
agement of ecclesiastical affairs. At length, however, at 
the close of King Alfred's life, a famous Northman 
leader, named Hastings, landed in England, at the head 
of a large force, so that Alfred's reign ended as it had 
begun, — in desperate and protracted conflicts with the 
Danes. Hastings had made one previous invasion into 
England, but Guthrum, faithful to his promise to Alfred, 
repulsed him. But Guthrum was now dead, and so King- 
Alfred was forced to meet this tireless and implacable foe 
again. Year after year passed, during which a succes- 
sion of battles were fought between the two nations, 
now the Danes gaining an advantage, now the Saxons. 
Hastings was finalW expelled from P^ngland in 897, and 
once more Alfred's kingdom was at peace. But King 
Alfred's life was now drawing very near its close. His 
children had now grown to manhood, and repaid his love 
and care by endeavoring to imitate their illustrious 
father's example. His eldest son Edward was to suc- 
ceed King Alfred on the English throne. A daughter 
named Ethelfleda, who was married to a prince of Mercia, 
was famed all over England for the superiority of her 
mind, her many accomplishments, and her devoted piet}'. 
Alfred the Great was fifty-two years of age when he died. 
His body was interred in the great cathedral at Win- 
chester, and the kingdom passed peacefully to his son. 
His own dying farewell to his son Edward is the best 
memorial encomium which can be passed upon his life, 
and he most truly earned the title of Alfred the Great, — 
great in wisdom, great in power, and, best of all, great 
in goodness ; and his purified spirit passed from earth 
with these truly great words upon his dying lips : — 
"Thou, my dear son, sit thee now beside me, and I 



194 ALFRED THE GREAT. 

will deliver thee true instructions. I feel that my hour is 
coming. My strength is gone ; my countenance is wasted 
and pale ; my da}^ are almost ended. We must now 
part. I go to another world, and thou art left alone in 
the possession of all that I have thus far held. I pray 
thee, my dear child, to be a father to th}- people. Be the 
children's father and the widow's friend. Comfort the 
poor, protect and shelter the weak, and, with all thy 
might, right that which is wrong. And, my sou, govern 
thyself hy laiv. Then shall the Lord love thee, and God 
himself shall be thy reward. Call thou upon Him to 
advise thee in all thy need, and He shall help thee to 
compass all thy desires." 



RICHARD CCELR DE LION. 195 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

A.D. 1157-1199. 

"Yet looks he like a king ; behold his eye, 
As bright as is the eagle's, lightens forth 
Controlling majesty." — Shakespeare. 

THE history of Richard Coeur de Lion is a history of 
the third crusade, and the most memorable one of 
all. Upon the side of the Mussulmans was Saladin, 
sultan of Egypt and Syria. Saladin, whose name means 
'^ splendor of religion," was a noble and generous man, 
and though a Mohammedan, he often evinced a far more 
humane and commendable spirit than many of his foes, 
who called themselves Christians. Upon the side of the 
Mohammedans, as well as that of the Christians, this 
conflict was regarded as a holy war ; for the Christians 
were fighting to obtain Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre, 
where the body of Jesus Christ was supposed to have 
lain, while the Mohammedans were just as zealously fight- 
ing to retain Jerusalem ; and Saladin's answer to the 
Christians, when they demanded the surrender of that 
city was, "Jerusalem never was yours, and we may not 
without sin give it up to you ; for it is the place where 
the mysteries of our religion were accomplished ; and the 
last one of my soldiers will perish before the Mussulmans 
renounce conquests made in the name of Mohammed." 

Before the time of Richard the Lion -Hearted, Jerusa- 
lem had been conquered by the Christians, and they had 



190 RICHARD CCECR DE LION. 

set up in it a king. This was in 1099, when the cru- 
saders elected Godfrey de Bouillon as king of Jerusalem. 
But he reigned but one year and died. In the space of 
one hundred and seventy-one 3'ears, from the coronation 
of Godfrey de Bouillon as king of Jerusalem in 1099, to 
the last crusade under Louis IX. of France, in 1270, 
there were seven crusades which were undertaken by the 
kings of France and England, the emperors of Germany, 
the king of Denmark, and various princes of Italy. They 
all failed in the end of accomplishing the permanent pos- 
session of the city of Jerusalem b}' the Christians ; but 
these various crusades called forth a number of devout 
and self-sacrificing monks and bishops, and gave occasion 
for brave and valiant deeds by many knights and kings, 
and none were so brave, and none became so famous in 
the annals of these holy wars as Richard I., king of 
England, called by the Christians Coeur de Lion, the 
Lion-hearted, on account of his valor, and for the same 
reason feared among the Mohammedans, and called by 
them Malek-Rik ; and so great a terror did this name 
become, that when St. Louis, more than fifty years after, 
led the French to another crusade, they heard the Saracen 
mothers scolding their children, and threatening them 
with punishment by the dreadful Malek-Rik, who had 
never been forgotten. The first of the crusades had been 
inspired b}' a zealous monk, called Peter the Hermit. 
From the earliest days of Christianity, many pious per- 
sons had made pilgrimages to Palestine, to visit the 
graves of saints and other places. After a time, these 
pilgrimages had been extended to Jerusalem ; and that 
city at length, having fallen into the hands of the Turks, 
the Christian people were treated with cruelty, and many 
of the clergy were imprisoned and even killed. Peter the 




RICHARD C(EUR UE LION. 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 197 

Hermit had been to Jerusalem, and having himself been 
an eye-witness of the cruelties of the Turks towards the 
Christians, he obtained permission of the Pope to go to 
the principal courts in Europe, and exhort all Christian 
warriors to take up arms against the infidels in the Holy 
Laud. Peter the Hermit walked from court to court, 
barefoot and clothed in rags. He was listened to as a 
prophet, and succeeded in inspiring man}' knights and 
crowds of people to enlist in what they considered a 
sacred cause. The symbol of this enlistment was a cross 
of red stuff sewed to the shoulder of the cloak ; hence the 
name crusade. France was at this time roused to great 
excitement. The barons sold and pledged their lands to 
obtain the means of joining the expedition. The Pope 
promised a full remission of sins to all who assumed the 
cross ; and as the mass of the people were so ignorant in 
those days that the word of the Pope was held to be as 
sacred as a voice from heaven, and his blessing or excom- 
munication was regarded b}^ them as powerful enough to 
raise them to Paradise, or call down upon them everlast- 
ing destruction, thousands of wicked persons, whose sins 
were so many that it would have required years of pen- 
ance to have gained the much-coveted absolvance from 
the Pope, eagerW seized upon this method of winning 
earthly glory, and, as they supposed, heavenly honor. It 
is said that a crowd of more than a milUon of persons, 
including beggars, women and children, soon pledged 
themselves to this crusade. Three hundred thousand of 
such a motley company started, with Peter the Hermit and 
Walter the Penniless marchino- at their head. Nearlv the 
entire number fell victims to the fury of their assailants 
in the countries through which they passed. This com- 
pany of helpless beggars, women and children, were fol- 



198 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

lowed by three hundred thousand fighting men, who had 
been preparing in the different kingdoms, mostly in 
France. Of this large host, only a small remnant under 
Godfrey de Bouillon, arrived at Jerusalem, and captured 
that city in 1099, and planted the standard of the cross 
on its walls. 

8t. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, roused the people 
again for the second crusade, for it was discovered that 
the Turks had massacred the Christians in Palestine, and 
that Jerusalem was in danger. King Louis VII. of 
France, and the emperor Conrad III. of Germany, 
espoused the cause. Although Louis and Conrad entered 
the city of Jerusalem and determined upon the siege of 
Damascus, nothing permanent was accomplished. The 
siege of Damascus was abandoned, and the crusade- 
sovereigns returned to their respective kingdoms. 

During the forty years' interval between the end of the 
second and the beginning of the third crusades, the rela- 
tive positions of the West and East, Christian Europe 
and Mussulman Asia, remained much the same. But in 
1187, news again reached Europe of repeated disasters to 
the Christians in Asia. Egypt had become tlie goal of 
ambition, and Saladin, the most illustrious as well as the 
most powerful of Mussulman sovereigns, being sultan 
of Egypt and Syria, had fought against a Christian army 
near Tiberias. The oriental chronicles thus describe the 
conflict: "The Christian army was surrounded by the 
Saracens, and also, ere long, by the fire, which Saladin 
had ordered to be set to the dry grass which covered the 
plain. The flames made their way and spread beneath 
the feet of men and horses. There the sons of Paradise 
and the children of fire settled their terrible quarrel. 
Arrows hurtled in the air like a noisy flight of sparrows. 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LIOX, 199 

and the blood of warriors dripped upon the ground like 
rain-water. Hill, plain, and valley were covered with 
their dead ; their banners were stained with dust and 
blood, their heads were laid low, their limbs scattered, 
their carcasses piled on a heap like stones." Four days 
after the battle of Tiberias in July, 1187, Saladin took 
possession of St. Jean d'Acre, and in the following Sep- 
tember, of Ascalon. In the same month he laid siege to 
Jerusalem. The Holy City contained at that time, it is 
said, nearly one hundred thousand Christians, who had 
fled for safet}^ from all parts of Palestine. Saladin's 
taking of Jerusalem is thus described by Guizot. "On 
approaching its walls, Saladin sent for the principal 
inhabitants, and said to them, ' I know as well as you 
that Jerusalem is the house of God, and I will not have 
it assaulted if I can get it by peace and love, I will give 
you thirty thousand byzants of gold if you promise me 
Jerusalem, and you shall have liberty to go whither you 
will and do your tillage, to a distance of five miles from 
the cit}'. And I will have 3'ou supplied with such plenty 
of provisions that in no place on earth shall they be so 
cheap. You shall have a truce from now to Whitsuntide, 
and when this time comes, if you see that you may have 
aid, then hold on. But if not, you shall give up the cit}', 
and I will have you conveyed in safety to Christian terri- 
tory, yourselves and your substance.' ' We may not yield 
up to you a city where died our God,' answered the 
envoys, 'and still less may we sell you.' The siege 
lasted fourteen days. After having repulsed several 
assaults, the inhabitants saw that effectual resistance was 
impossible, and the commandant of the place, a knight, 
named Balian d'Ibelin, an old warrior who had been at 
the battle of Tiberias, returned to Saladin, and asked for 



200 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 

the conditions back again which had been at first rejected. 
Saladin, pointing to his own banner akeady planted upon 
several parts of the battlements, answered, ' It is too late, 
you surely see that the city is mine.' ' Very well, my 
lord,' replied the knight, ' we will ourselves destroy our 
city, and the mosque of Omar, and the stone of Jacob, 
and when it is nothing but a heap of ruins, we will sally 
forth with sword and fire in hand, and not one of us will 
go to Paradise without having sent ten Mussulmans to 
hell.' Saladin understood enthusiasm and respected it, 
and to have had the destruction of Jerusalem connected 
with his name would have caused him deep displeasure. 
He therefore consented to the terms of capitulation 
demanded of him. The fighting men were permitted to 
retreat to Tvre or Tripolis, which cities were in the powder 
of the Christians, and the simple inhabitants of Jerusalem 
had their lives preserved, and permission given them to 
purchase their freedom on certain conditions ; but, as 
many amongst them could not find the means, Malek- 
Adhel, the sultan's brother, and Saladin himself, paid the 
ransom of several thousands of captives. All Christians, 
however, with the exception of Greeks and Syrians, had 
orders to leave Jerusalem within four days. When the 
day came, all the gates were closed except that of David, 
b}' which the people were to go forth, and Saladin, seated 
upon a throne, saw the Christians defile before him. 
First came the patriarch, followed by the clergy carrying 
the sacred vessels and the ornaments of the church of the 
Holy Sepulchre. After him came Sibylla, queen of Jeru- 
salem, who had remained in the city, whilst her husband, 
Guy de Lusignan, had been a prisoner at Nablous since 
the battle of Tiberias. Saladin saluted her respectfully, 
and spoke to her kindly. He had too great a soul to take 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 201 

pleasure in the humiliation of greatness." The capture 
of Jerusalem again roused Europe to arms, but the stor}' 
of this third crusade will be more fully narrated, as we 
proceed with the personal history of Richard the Lion- 
hearted, who became the chief and most illustrious figure 
in the annals of this third holy war. 

Eleanor, the mother of Richard Coeur de Lion, had 
herself participated in the second crusade. Eleanor's 
grandfather was duke of Aquitaine, a rich kingdom in 
the south of France. His son, the father of Eleanor, had 
been killed in the first crusade, and the duke of Aqui- 
taine determined to resign his kingdom in favor of his 
grand-daughter, and marry her to Prince Louis VIL, then 
heir to the throne of France. This was accomplished, and 
King Louis VI. of France, dying soon after the marriage, 
Eleanor became queen of France, as well as duchess of 
Aquitaine. This princess had been well educated for 
those times, and was even celebrated for her learning, as 
she possessed the rare accomplishments of being able to 
read and write, as well as to sing the songs of the Trou- 
badours, which was the fashionable music of the courts. 
King Louis VII., her husband, was a very pious man, 
much more fond of devotion than of pleasure, so he de- 
termined to go on a crusade, and Queen Eleanor, from 
a gay love of adventure, resolved to accompany him. 
Eleanor and her court ladies laid aside their feminine 
attire, and clothed themselves as Amazons, taking good 
care, however, to provide a most cumbersome amount of 
baggage, containing their usual rich costumes and deli- 
cate luxuries, which proved so great a burden in trans- 
portation that the king remonstrated against such a 
needless and troublesome excess of useless finery. But 
the ladies carried their point, and the crusading expedition, 



202 RICHARD CCEUR DE LIOX. 

which should have been composed of an army of valiant 
warriors, became an immense train of women and bag- 
gao-e, requiring the constant care of the princes, barons, 
and kniohts, many of them reluctant participants, who 
had been shamed by the taunts of these ladies into join- 
ing an expedition which had been organized upon so wild 
and heedless a plan as to insure only disaster and failure. 
But the gay ladies exclaimed to any man who dared to 
express any thoughts of remaining at home, "We will 
send you our distaffs as presents. We have no longer 
any use for them, but as you are intending to stay at 
home and make women of yourselves, we will send them 
to you, so that you may occupy yourselves with spinning 
while we are gone." 

Notwithstanding this apparent zeal which Eleanor and 
her court ladies displayed, their caprices and freaks con- 
tinued to harass and interfere with the expedition, dur- 
ing the entire crusade, and Queen Eleanor so displeased 
King Louis by her gay and frivolous conduct, that a long 
and serious quarrel arose between them, and he declared 
that he would obtain a divorce from her. But his min- 
isters tried to prevent this, as Eleanor possessed the rich 
kingdom of Aquitaine in her own right, which would be 
lost to Louis by a separation. So they returned from the 
Holy Land to Paris, still as king and queen of France. 
But in about two years after, Eleanor determined to be 
divorced from King Louis of France, so that she might 
marry Prince Henry Plantagenet, who afterwards became 
Henry II., of England. Prince Henry's father had 
received the name Plantagenet from a habit he had 
of wearing a spra}' of broom blossom in his cap. The 
French name for this plant is genet, and so he was nick- 
named Plantagenet, and his son Henry II. was the first 



RICHARD CCEUR BE LION. 203 

king in that family, also called the House of Anjou. Al- 
though Henry H. was king of England, by his marriage 
with Eleanor, which took place only a short time after 
she obtained a divorce from King Louis of France, Henry 
gained the great dukedom of Aquitaine, and as he already 
possessed Normandy and Anjou, he really was lord of 
nearly half of France. He ruled England well, but he 
cared more for power than what was right, and he often 
indulged in such exhibitions of fierce rage, that he would 
roll on the floor and bite the rushes with which it was 
strewn. At the time of his marriage with Eleanor, Henry 
was duke of Normandy, and was only twenty years of 
age, while Eleanor was thirty-two ; but she was very much 
in love with him, and as she could bring him such a rich 
kingdom, and furnish him men and money to help him se- 
cure the crown of England, which was at that time held 
by King Stephen, whom Henry declared was a usurper, he 
was willing to accept Eleanor as his wife, although she 
was nearly twice his own age, and was also the divorced 
wife of King Louis. Some historians place the blame of 
the divorce upon Eleanor, some upon Louis ; but all unite 
in condemning her previous conduct, for she occasioned 
many scandalous remarks by her undignified, un wifely, 
and even culpable actions. After she became queen of 
England, however, she changed in this respect, and her 
after quarrels with Henry were occasioned by her am- 
bitions and his conduct regarding a lady called the Fair 
Rosamond, who afterwards became a nun in a convent 
near Oxford. Some historians think that Henry was in 
reality married to Rosamond before he was persuaded to 
espouse Eleanor, in order to gain her rich possessions. 
Though Eleanor had equally wronged her former husband, 
Louis, she made no excuse for King Henry's devotion to 



204 RICHARD CCEUR 1)E LION. 

Rosamond, and when she discovered Henry's affection 
for her, she ordered that she should be shut up in a con- 
vent out of the way. To this King Henry consented, but 
the jealousy of the queen against her rival was never 
abated, and added great bitterness to the other causes of 
discord between herself and King Henry, which at last 
broke out in the open rebellion of Queen Eleanor and her 
sons against the king, so that Henry would often be 
obliged to raise armies to put down the various disturbances 
caused by first one son, then another, then all together, 
encouraged by their mother Eleanor, who however seemed 
to have inspired more love and devotion in the hearts of 
her sons than their father. Almost all the early years of 
the life of Richard were spent in wars which were waged 
by different members of his father's family against each 
other. These wars originated in the quarrels between 
King Henry and his sons, in respect to the family prop- 
erty. As Henry II. held a great many possessions which 
he had inherited through his father, grandfather, and his 
wife Eleanor, he was duke of one countr}-, earl of a sec- 
ond, king of a third, and count of a fourth. Henry had 
five sons, of whom Richard was the third, and be was 
born about three years after Eleanor was crowned queen 
of England, when, upon the death of King Stephen, Henry 
became king of that countr}^ Henry II. was a generous 
father, and as his sons became old enough, he gave them 
provinces of their own. But they were not contented 
with the portions allotted to them, and demanded more. 
Sometimes Henry would yield, at other times resist, when 
the sons would raise armies and rebel against their father, 
and then would follow the shocking spectacle of husband, 
wife, and sons, all fighting against each other. These 
wars continued for many years, the mother usually taking 



RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 205 

sides with her sons, until King Henry shut her up in a 
castle, in a sort of imprisonment, where he kept her con- 
fined for sixteen years. 

It was during the reign of Henry II. that the famous 
archbishop, Thomas a Becket, was murdered, under the 
following circumstances : Thomas k Becket had been one 
of Henry's most devoted friends and intimate counsellors, 
and Henry had raised him to the office of Chancellor. 
Afterwards Henry made Thomas a Becket bishop of Can- 
terbury, but from that time serious differences arose be- 
tween them. The king made many laws, one being, that 
if a priest or monk was thought to have committed an}' 
crime, he should be tried by civil judges, like other men ; 
whereas Becket, in the name of the church, maintained 
that the clergy should be tried only by the bishops. 
This quarrel was so serious that Becket was forced to 
leave England and take refuge with the king of France. 
After six years, a half reconciliation took place, and the 
archbishop of Canterbury returned to England. Thomas 
a Becket soon again incurred the king's displeasure, and 
Henry exclaimed in anger, "Will no one rid me of this 
turbulent priest?" Whereupon four of his knights who 
had heard this remark, and thought that they would gain 
power over the king by carrying out this wish, immedi- 
ately went to Canterbury, and finding the archbishop in 
the cathedral by the altar, they slew him. At first Henry 
was secretl}' glad, but the people and priests considered 
Thomas a martyr, and raised such an outcry of indigna- 
tion, that three years after. King Henry went to the cathe- 
dral of Canterbury, and in order to show his penitence, 
he entered barefoot, and kneeling by the tomb of Thomas 
a Becket, he commanded every priest to strike him with 
a knotted rope upon his bare back. This he endured as 



-T 



206 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 

an act of penance for causing the death of the arch- 
bishop. 

The first important event of Ricliard's childhood was 
his betrothment. When he was about four years of age 
he was formally affianced to Alice, the child of Louis, 
king of France. Alice was three years of age. Another 
of King Louis' children had been married in the same way 
to Richard's eldest brother Henry, and the English king 
complained that the dowry of the young French princess 
was not sufficient, and this quarrel was settled b}' an 
agreement that King Louis should give his other daughter 
Alice to Richard, and with her another province. These 
infant marriages, or betrothments, were made by kings 
in order to get possession of rich territories, for the father 
of the husbands became the guardians of the provinces, 
and received any sum of money agreed upon, which they 
usually appropriated to their own use. This betrothment 
of Richard became the cause of future differences between 
himself and Philip, the brother of Alice, when Richard 
had become king of England, and Philip king of France. 
At length, in the midst of one of the frequent wars be- 
tween the king of England and his sons, his eldest son 
Henry was taken very sick, and being at the point of 
death, he sent to his father to obtain his forgiveness, and 
to beg that he would come to see him. The king, fearing 
it was only some stratagem to get him into the power of 
the rebellious young prince, who had often broken his 
word, did not dare to go, but sent an archbishop to Prince 
Henry, with a ring as a token of his forgiveness. The 
poor prince who was really dying, and very penitent for 
his un filial conduct, pressed the ring to his dying lips 
with frantic tears of remorse, and commanded his attend- 
ants to lay him upon a bed of ashes, which he had ordered 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 207 

prepared, that he might die there as a sign of his sincere 
repentance. When King Henry heard of the sad death 
of his eldest son, he was moved to tears, and releasing 
his wife Queen Eleanor from her imprisonment, he be- 
came reconciled to her for a time. But soon again the 
family dissensions arose. Prince Geoffrey, the second 
son of King Henry, was killed in a tournament, and 
Richard, who had now reached manhood, demanded that 
his father should give him the Princess Alice in marriage, 
and with her the lands and money intrusted to his care 
by the king of France. This King Henry refused to do. 
Some said, because he wished to keep the rich lands him- 
self ; others said, because he himself loved the Princess 
Alice, and that he was determined to seek a divorce from 
Queen Eleanor, so that he might marry the young princess. 
Whatever was his motive, King Henry refused to have 
Richard's marriage with Alice consummated, and kept 
the princess shut up in a castle. Whereupon Richard 
rebelled against his father, and persuaded his younger 
brother John to espouse his cause. Of course Eleanor 
took sides with her sons, so she was again shut up in a 
castle by King Henry, and Richard and John set off for 
Paris and gained the support of Philip II., of France, 
who was now king, as Louis was dead. King Henry had 
determined to divide his kingdom, and as John was his 
favorite as well as youngest, he resolved to have him 
crowned king of England, leaving his French possessions 
to Richard. Whereupon Richard carried off his young 
brother, and with the help of Philip, raised an army to 
fight against his father. In this war King Henry, who 
was now old and broken -spirited by his many sorrows, 
was so far defeated that he was obliged to submit to 
negotiations for peace. While the terms were being ar- 



208 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 

ranged, King Henry fell very ill, and when the articles of 
treaty were brought to his bedside, he found that the 
name of his youngest son John, his darling, who had 
never rebelled against him before, now headed the list of 
the princes, barons, and nobles who had gone over to 
Richard's side. This quite broke his heart, and he ex- 
claimed with tears, " Is it possible that John, the child of 
my heart, he whom I have cherished more than all the 
rest, and for love of whom I have drawn down on my own 
head all these troubles, has verily betrayed me? Then," 
said he, falling back helplessly upon the bed, " let every- 
thing go on as it will, I care no longer for myself, nor for 
anything else in the world." The king grew more and 
more excited, until at last he died in a raving delirium, 
cursing his rebellious children with his last breath. Thus 
Richard I. became king of England when he was about 
thirty-two years of age. The sad death of his father oc- 
casioned some remorse in the heart of Richard, and he 
joined in the funeral solemnities. King Henry had died 
in Normandy, and was buried in an abbey there. 

King Richard now sent at once to England, and ordered 
the release of his mother Queen Eleanor, and invested her 
with power to act as regent there, while he himself re- 
mained in Normandy to secure his French possessions. 
Queen Eleanor was regent in England for two months, 
and employed her power in a very beneficent manner. 
Her imprisonment and sorrows had no doubt disposed her 
to kindness towards others, and remorse for her past evil 
deeds prompted her to many acts of mercy. 

King Richard now arranged with King Philip of France, 
to go upon a crusade. Richard was brave, though he was 
not a good man. His greatest delight was in fighting, 
and as his claims to his own kingdom were now undis- 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 209 

puted, he was eager to enter into a campaign in the Holy 
Land. His brother Prince John was very willing that 
Richard should go, and made no claims to any of the 
provinces of his father, for he hoped that Richard would 
be killed in the Holy War, and thus the rich kingdoms 
of Enoland and Normandv would fall to him. Though 
Richard was brave, he was neither wise nor provident in 
the administration of his government. His one absorbing 
idea was how to gain fresh glory as a valiant knight in 
the war with the Saracens, and he levied heavy taxes 
upon all his dominions to raise the necessary funds re- 
quired for the equipment of his army. 

These Holy Wars were very costly expeditions. The 
princes, barons, and knights required very expensive 
armor, and rich trappings for their horses, and ships were 
to be bought and equipped, arms and ammunition pro- 
vided, and large supplies of food purchased. Though the 
pretense was religious zeal in going out to fight for the. 
recoverj' of the Holy Sepulchre, the real motive which 
animated most of the participants in the several crusades, 
was love of glory and display. 

Upon King Richard's arrival in England, he proceeded 
at once to Winchester, where his father had kept his 
treasures. Richard found here a large sum of money, 
rich plate, and precious gems of great value. These he 
placed under the care of trusty officers. 

The former adherents of Richard, when he was a prince 
rebelling against the lawful king his father, now supposed 
that they would be held by him in high esteem. But in 
this the}' were greatly disappointed. King Richard was wise 
enough to know that those who had aided his rebellions, 
might likewise aid others against his own supremacy. So 
he retained his father's oflScers and experienced men of 
state. 



210 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

The day upon which the coronation of Richard I. was 
celebrated by a very magnificent ceremony in Westminster 
Abbey, has become historical not only on that account, 
but in consequence of a great massacre of the Jews, which 
resulted from a riot that broke out in Westminster and 
London immediately after the crowning of the king. 
The Jews had been persecuted by all the Christian nations 
of Europe, and the people imagined that they were serv- 
ing the cause of religion in oppressing them, as they were 
considered little better than infidels and heathen. As 
Philip had banished the Jews from France, and confis- 
cated their property, the Jews in England determined to 
send a delegation to conciliate Richard's favor, and they 
accordingly came to Westminster at the time of his coro- 
nation, bearing rich presents. As Richard had com- 
manded that no Jew or woman should be present at this 
ceremony, when the Jewish deputation came in and offered 
their presents amongst the rest, there was loud murmur- 
ing throughout the crowd. 

King Richard gladly accepted their rich gifts, but as a 
Jew was attempting to enter at the gate, a bystander 
cried out, " Here comes a Jew ! " and struck him a blow. 
Others now assailed him, and as he was escaping, bruised 
and bleeding, the cry was raised that the Jews were ex- 
pelled b}' the king's orders, and as a riot was now raised 
in the streets, which became a bloody fight between Jews 
and Christians, the rumor went forth that the king had 
ordered all the Jews to be killed. The mob instantly at- 
tempted to carry out this supposed order, and Jews were 
murdered everywhere, in the streets, in their homes ; and 
when they barricaded their dwellings, the mob set fire to 
them, and men, women, and children perished in the 
flames. 



RICHARD C(EUR BE LION. 211 

The king and his nobles were meanwhile feasting in 
the great banqueting-hall at Westminster, and for a time 
took no notice of the disturbance. At leno-th officers 
were sent to suppress the mob, but it was too late. The 
enfuriated people paid no attention to the few soldiers 
sent to quell them, and only rested from their bloody 
work, from sheer exhaustion, about two o'clock the next 
day. 

A few of the men engaged in the riot were afterwards 
brought to trial and punished, but King Richard found 
that so many of his chief men were implicated, that he 
let the matter drop, oul^' issuing an edict, forbidding the 
Jews to be injured any more. 

King Richard now entered upon his preparations for 
the crusade, with intense zeal. His great need was 
money, and he seemed to think that the sacred cause was 
an excuse for most unkingly measures. Richard was en- 
dowed with a sort of reckless lion-like courage, which led 
him to look upon fighting as a sport, and as he had no 
one to fight at home, he espoused eagerly any pretense of 
a sacred cause which would give him the pleasure of 
killing as many men as he pleased, and thereby winning 
not disapprobation from the world, but loud plaudits for 
bravery, and zealous devotion to a holy enterprise. 
Strange delusion ! That men should go forth to murder, 
rob, and devastate the land in the name of the meek 
and lowly Christ. Only ignorance and superstition could 
allow the human soul to be so infatuated with not only 
false, but most atrociously wicked, ideas, which were in 
entire opposition to the teachings of the Divine Leader 
whom they professed to follow. 

In securing money for the crusade. King Richard re- 
sorted to many very questionable expedients. He pro- 



212 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

ceeded to sell the ro3iil domains which he had inlierited 
from his father, and in this manner disposed of castles, 
fortresses, and towns to the highest bidder. When re- 
monstrated with for thus diminishing the crown property, 
he replied, "I would sell the city of London itself, if I 
could find a purchaser rich enough to buy it." 

Richard also sold high offices and titles of honor ; and 
the historians state that King Richard's presence-chamber 
became a regular place of trade, where castles, titles, 
offices, and honors were for sale, to whomsoever would 
give the best bargain. But the most disreputable manner 
of raising money was by imposing fines as a punishment 
for crimes, and then endeavoring to fix crimes upon the 
wealthy, so that they would be obliged to pay large sums 
to free themselves. Lastl}', Richard sold the nominal 
regency of England to two wealthy courtiers, one a bishop, 
the other an earl. Or if he did not sell it to them out- 
right, he arranged that they were to receive the power, 
and were to give him a large sum of money. He, however, 
stipulated that his brother John and his mother should 
have their share of influence in deciding upon measures 
concerning the government. 

Notwithstanding Richard's quarrels with his father, re- 
garding his marriage with the Princess Alice when he 
became king, Richard seemed in no hurrj^ to fulfil his en- 
gagement, and even determined to set it aside altogether, 
for he had met and loved a Spanish princess named Be- 
rengaria. But, lest this should cause a fresh quarrel with 
Philip, the brother of Alice, Richard resolved to keep his 
plans a secret. So he sent his mother Queen Eleanor to 
Spain to secure Berengaria for his wife, and Eleanor 
having been successful in her mission, the two ladies, with 
a train of barons and knights, set out for Italy, where 
Richard intended to meet them. 



RICHARD CCEUR BE LION. 213 

Meanwhile, the two kings, Philip and Richard, had con- 
tinued their preparations for the crusade. As Philip had 
no ships of his own, he made arrangements with the re- 
public of Genoa to furnish him with ships, and so he 
departed for that place. Richard, having a large fleet, 
which he had sent round to Marseilles with orders to 
await him there, marched his army across France by land. 
So little reliance did either Pliilip or Richard place in 
each other, that neither of them would have thought it 
safe to leave his own dominions unless the other had 
been going also. They made a final treaty of alliance 
before starting, that they would defend the life and honor 
of the other upon all occasions ; that neither would desert 
the otlier in time of danger ; and that they would respect 
the dominions of each other. 

When King Richard reached Marseilles, he found that 
his fleet had not arrived. It had been delayed by a storm. 
Richard, not waiting for his fleet, hired ten large vessels 
and twenty galleys, and embarked with a portion of his 
forces, leaving orders for the remainder to follow in the 
fleet, and to meet him at Messina, in Sicily. 

Joanna, the sister of King Richard, had married the 
king of Sicily. He was now dead, and the throne had 
been seized by one Tancred, and Joanna had been shut 
up in a castle. King Richard determined to redress his 
sister's wrongs, and after arriving at Genoa, where he 
found Philip, Richard set out on his way to Messina, 
stopping at Ostia, Naples, and Salerno, by the way. 
Having arrived at Messina, where Philip had also landed, 
Richard, having met his own fleet on the Italian side of 
the strait, entered the harbor with his ships and galleys 
fully manned and gayly decorated, while musicians were 
stationed on the decks, to blow trumpets and horns as the 



214 RICHARD CmUR DE LION. 

fleet sailed along the shore. The Sicilians were quite 
alarmed to behold such a formidable host of foreign sol- 
diers, and his allies, the French, did not like this grand 
display any bettex', for Philip had arrived with disabled 
ships, and immediately began to be very jealous of the 
oTowino- fame of King Richard. Philip determined to 
leave Messina as speedily as possible, and proceed on his 
way towards the Holy Land, but having attempted it, and 
encountered a severe storm, he was obliged to turn back 
again. As winter had now set in, both kings found tbiit 
they must remain there until spring. As soon as Richard 
landed his troops at Messina, he formed a great encamp- 
ment on the seashore near the town, and then sent an 
embassy to Tancred, demanding Joanna's release. Tan- 
cred, awed by Richard's power, immediately complied 
with this demand, and Joanna being safely out of the 
power of her eneni}^, Richard forthwith attacked the city 
of Messina, and having captured it, Tancred made peace 
with Richard upon the following terms : — 

Richard had a nephew about two years of age, named 
Arthur. Tancred had an infant daughter. So it was 
agreed that Arthur and this young daughter of Tancred 
should be affianced, and that Tancred should pay to 
Richard twent}^ thousand pieces of gold as her dowry. 
Richard was to receive this money as guardian of his 
nephew, and also twenty thousand pieces of gold besides, 
in full settlement of all claims of Joanna. 

This treaty was drawn up in due form. and signed, and 
sent for safe keeping to the Pope at Rome, and Richard 
having received the money, began immediately to lavish 
it in costly presents to the barons and knights in both 
armies, which gave King Philip cause for suspicions, as 
he thought Richard was endeavoring to buy the allegiance 



RICHABD CCEUE DE LION. 215 

of his troops, and soon an open quarrel occurred between 
the two sovereigns. Richard's use of this trust money 
demonstrates the small regard he had for the just rights 
and claims of others. But the distrust which existed 
between Richard and Philip was no longer concealed. 
Tancred sliowed Richard a letter, which was said to have 
been written by Philip, in which Richard was bitterly 
denounced as a treacherous foe. Richard indignantly 
showed this letter to Philip, who denied having written it, 
and the two kings were soon in a hot dispute. Philip 
then declared that Richard was endeavoring to break his 
engagement with his sister Alice. Whereupon Richard 
retorted that he would never marry her. 

The matter was finally settled by a compromise. Rich- 
ard promised to pa}' a large sum of money to Philip, who 
agreed to relinquish all claims on the part of Alice. 
So Philip sailed away in March, and Richard selected 
from his fleet a few of his most splendid galleys, and with 
a chosen company of knights and barons, proceeded to 
the port in Ital}', where Berengaria was sta^^ing, under 
the care of Joanna, Queen Eleanor having returned to 
England ; and King Richard conducted the ladies to Mes- 
sina. It being the season of Lent, the marriage was still 
postponed ; and Joanna and Berengaria were provided 
with a strong and well-manned ship, and sailed with the 
expedition ; it being the purpose of Richard to land at 
some port, after Lent, where the marriage ceremony would 
be performed. King Richard's fleet consisted of nearly 
two hundred vessels. There were thirteen great ships, 
and over fifty galleys, besides a large number of smaller 
vessels. Richard sailed at the head of his fleet, in a 
splendid galley, called the Sea-Cutter. This fine fleet 
sailed out of the harbor with flying banners, affording the 
Sicilians an imposing spectacle. 



216 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION, 

But storms overtook this brilliant array of ships, and 
soon the fleet was dispersed. Some of the vessels were 
driven to Rhodes ; others took refuge in Cyprus. Rich- 
ard's galley went to Rhodes ; but the ship containing 
Berengaria and Joanna was swept onward by the gale to 
the mouth of the harbor of Limesol, the princii^al port of 
Cyprus. The king of Cyprus, in accordance with the 
custom of those times, had seized upon the wrecks of 
several vessels belonging to Richard's fleet ; and the com- 
mander of the ship in which the princess and queen had 
sailed, feared to land, lest some harm should come to the 
royal ladies. 

After the storm, Richard set out with his part of the 
fleet, to find the missing vessels ; and having arrived 
before Cyprus, he found the galley of Berengaria and 
Joanna safe, but learned that the king of Cyprus had 
seized upon several of his wrecked vessels, and claimed 
them as his prize. This was a common practice at that 
time, and the king of Cyprus had acted in accordance 
with a customary law, which, though a violation of the 
real rights of property, gave a person the libert}' to con- 
fiscate wrecked vessels or goods. In later times, this law 
was annulled, but the king of Cyprus had the law upon 
his side ; notwithstanding, Richard immediately^ prepared 
for war, for he was only too glad to find some pretext for 
attacking and capturing the fair isle of Cyprus. Rich- 
ard's assault upon Limesol was successful ; and King 
Richard, having signaled the galle}' of Joanna to advance, 
the whole army landed, and the ladies were lodged in one 
of the most magnificent of the palaces of the king of 
Cyprus. The daughter of the king of Cyprus was very 
beautiful, and was greatly terrified when she was brought 
into the presence of her father's conqueror. Richard 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 217 

gave her as an attendant to Berengaria, and sent the 
defeated king of Cyprus to Tripoh, in Syria, where he 
was shut up in a dungeon, and secured with chains, which, 
however, in honor of his rank, were made of silver, over- 
laid with gold. But what mattered it to the poor impris- 
oned monarch tluit his galling chains were of costly 
metals, when he was shut up in a gloom}' dungeon, and 
his daughter a prisoner in the hands of his enemy ? 

This poor king died in captivity, broken-hearted, four 
years after. Now, at last, the marriage of King Richard 
and Berengaria was celebrated with ro3'al splendor. After 
the marriage ceremony, there was a coronation, when 
Richard was crowned king of Cyprus, and Berengaria as 
queen of both England and C3'prus. 

The appearance of King Richard and Berengaria on 
this occasion was very striking. King Richard wore a 
rose-colored satin tunic, which was fastened by a jeweled 
belt about his waist. Over this was a mantle of striped 
silver tissue, brocaded with silver half-moons. He wore 
also a costly sword ; the blade was of Damascus steel, the 
hilt of gold, and the scabbard was of silver, richly en- 
graved. On his head was a scarlet bonnet, brocaded in 
gold, with figures of animals. He carried in his hand a 
truncheon, which was a sort of sceptre, very elaborately 
adorned. He was tall and well-formed, with yellow curls 
and a bright complexion ; and when mounted upon his 
magnificent charger, he appeared a perfect model of mili- 
tary and manly grace. This horse was named Faunelle, 
and became quite a historical character, acquiring great 
fame by his strength and courage, and by the marvellous 
sagacity he displayed in the various battles in which he 
was engaged with his master. His trappings were very 
rich ; the bit, stirrups, and all the metallic mountings of 



218 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

the saddle and bridle were of gold, and the crupper was 
adorned with two golden lions. The costume of Queen 
Berengaria was equally magnificent. The veil was fas- 
tened to her head by a royal diadem, resplendent with 
o-old and gems, and was surmounted by njleur de lis, with 
so much foliage added to it that it had the appearance of 
being a double crown, symbolizing her double queenship, 
both of England and Cyprus. 

The chief landing-point for expeditions of crusaders to 
the Holy Land was Acre, called also St. Jean d'Acre. 
It received its name from a military order, known as the 
Knights of St. John, who founded a monastery there for 
the safety and entertainment of pilgrims. This place 
was at this time in the hands of the Saracens ; and Philip, 
the French king, who arrived before Richard, had in vain 
tried to capture it. King Richard, having left Cyprus, 
together with his bride and sister, proceeded on his way 
to join Philip at Acre ; but he met with one adventure 
which is worthy of note. In sailing along, his fleet fell in 
with a ship of large size. Richard ordered his galle3's to 
press on, as the ship seemed to be endeavoring to escape. 
As they came nearer, they perceived that the strange ship 
was filled with Saracens. King Richard thereupon ordered 
his men to board the ship and capture it. The Saracens, 
feeling that escape was hopeless, scuttled the ship, deter- 
mined to sink with her rather than fall into the hands of 
the Christians. Then a dreadful combat ensued. Each 
side fought with ferocious energy ; for although the Sara- 
cens expected to die, they were resolved to first wreak 
their fury upon their foes. The Saracens employed Greek 
fire, which was a celebrated means of warfare in those 
days. It was some kind of combustible matter, which 
was set on fire and thrown at the enemy. Nothing could 



m 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 519 

extinguish it, and besides the great heat it produced, it 
threw forth dense volumes of poisonous and stifling gases, 
whicli soon suffocated those near by. It was thrown on 
the ends of darts and arrows, and even water did not 
extino-uish it ; so that the sea all around this Saracen 
ship was a mass of lurid flames. Although many of Rich- 
ard's men were killed, the Saracen ship was captured 
before it had time to sink, and the Christians, rushing on 
board, transferred to their own vessels nearly all of its 
valuable cargo. But their treatment of their Saracen 
foes was barbarous in the extreme. They killed and 
threw into the sea all but about thirty-five men out of 
twelve or fifteen hundred. These were saved, not from 
humanity, but in the hope of securing large sums for their 
ransom. King Richard afterwards defended this brutal 
conduct by declaring that they had found on board the 
Saracen ship large jars filled with poisonous snakes, which 
the infidels were about taking to Acre, to let them loose 
near the crusaders' camp. 

Wlien Richard's fleet arrived at Acre, the crusaders 
encamped there were much encouraged ; for their situa- 
tion was getting very critical, and they had accomplished 
little or nothing. 

The crusaders were not as well disciplined as the Sara- 
cen army, which was united under the command of the 
valiant and powerful Saladin. Among the Christians 
there were constant quarrels, caused by the petty jealous- 
ies and hostilities of the knights and barons. There was 
one great wrangling over the title of King of Jerusalem, 
which, although it was an empty title (for the city was 
still in the hands of the Saracens), there were many 
claimants for ; and each one of them intrigued incessantly 
to gain partisans to his side. A short time after Richard 



22ft RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

landed with his bride and army at Acre, fresh quarrels 
arose between the two kings ; and so serious was the dif- 
ference, that when Philip planned an assault, Richard 
would not assist him ; and when Richard, likewise, made 
an attack, PhiUp refused to aid. So that neither assault 
was successful against their common foe, while large 
numbers of their own men were killed. 

Although the allies failed to capture Acre by assault, 
the town was at length obliged to surrender to the Chris- 
tians on account of the famine, which caused such dis- 
tress that the Saracens entered into negotiations for sur- 
render, which were as follows: "The city was to be 
surrendered to the allied armies, and all the arms, ammu- 
nition, military stores, and property of all kinds which it 
contained, were to be forfeited to the conquerors. The 
troops and the people of the town were to be allowed to 
go free on pa3'ment of a ransom. The ransom by which 
the besieged purchased their lives and liberty was to be 
made up as follows : The wood of the cross on which 
Christ was crucified, which was alleged to be in Saladin's 
possession, was to be restored. Saladin was to set at 
liberty the Christian captives which he had taken in the 
course of the war from the various armies of crusad- 
ers, and which he now held as prisoners. The number 
of these prisoners was about fifteen hundred. Saladin 
was to pay two hundred thousand pieces of gold. Rich- 
'"ard was to retain a large body of men — it was said that 
there were five thousand in all — consisting of soldiers of 
the garrison, or inhabitants of the town, as hostages for 
the fulfilment of these conditions. These men were to be 
kept forty days, or, if at the end of that time Saladin had 
not fulfilled the conditions of the surrender, they were all 
to be put to death." 




RICHARD TEARING DOWN THE AUSTRIAN BANNER. 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 221 

Saladin was not within tiie city, but was encamped with 
his army upon the surrounding mountains ; and finding 
that he could not aid the besieged inhabitants, he agreed 
to these overbearing terms, which King Philip had in vain 
tried to make more honorable. Although the treat}'' had 
been made in the names of both the kings, Richard en- 
tered the city as the conqueror, assigning to Philip a 
secondary place ; and having taken possession, Richard 
established himself and Berengaria in the principal palace, 
leaving Philip to secure quarters as best he might. Rich- 
ard also enraged the archduke of Austria, who was also 
one of the crusaders, b}' pulling down the banner of the 
duke, which he had ventured to place on one of the 
towers. 

Now, again, the disputes regarding the title of the 
King of Jerusalem were renewed. Two knights, Guy of 
Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, claimed this title, 
and Philip and Richard espoused opposite sides, Philip 
agreeing to help Conrad's claims, and Richard taking 
part with Guy. This occasioned so much hard feeling 
that Philip, who had been sick, announced that he was 
too ill to remain longer in such an unhealthy climate ; and 
leaving ten thousand French troops under the command 
of the duke of Burgundy, King Philip returned to France. 

We now come to the barbarous massacre of the five 
thousand Saracen prisoners, by the orders of King Rich- 
ard, which shocking deed has left a dark blot upon the 
fame of Richard, even though he gloried in the act and 
considered it a proof of his zeal in the cause of Christ. 
The writers of those da3's praised it, and maintained that, 
as the Saracens were the enemies of God, whoever killed 
them did God service. How they could be so blinded by 
ignorance and superstition we cannot understand ; and it 



222 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

appears very amazing that the religion of love which 
Jesus of Nazareth preached, by his words and his exam- 
ple, could have been so misunderstood by the perverted 
minds of men ; that such a diabolical spirit of ferocious 
brutality could be esteemed as commendable worship of 
Almighty God. 

The time which had been agreed upon for Saladin to 
comply with the stipulations of the surrender of Acre 
having expired, Richard ordered the five thousand prison- 
ers, which he held as hostages, to be brutally beheaded; 
and a false rumor having been raised, that Saladin had 
put to death his Christian prisoners, the soldiers of Rich- 
ard were easil}^ infuriated to be willing to execute this 
barbarous order. In the face of Saladin's humane treat- 
ment of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, when he captured 
that city, Mussulman though he was, this shocking bar- 
barity of the crusading army, while calling themselves 
Christians, was an atrocious crime, which no plea of sup- 
posed zeal or ignorant superstition can excuse. 

Saladin and his army were now retreating towards Jeru- 
salem, which city was his chief point to defend. Rich- 
ard, having repaired the walls of Acre, and placed a 
garrison to hold it, proceeded with thirty thousand men 
in pursuit of the Saracens. The recovery of the Holy 
Sepulchre was the great object of the crusaders. All 
their efforts were considered of no avail, if they failed to 
accomplish this important end. Richard's army were to 
follow the sea-shore to Jaffa, which was a port nearly 
opposite Jerusalem. This band of crusaders presented a 
brilliant appearance. The knights wore costly armor, 
and were mounted on horses richly caparisoned. Some 
of the horses were protected like their riders, with armor 
of steel. The columns were preceded by trumpeters and 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 223 

bearers of flags and banners, with very gorgeous decora- 
tions. When the expedition halted at night, heralds 
passed through the several camps, to the sound of trum- 
pets, and at a signal all the soldiers knelt, and the 
heralds exclaimed, " God save the Holy Sepulchre ! " and 
all the soldiers shouted, " Amen." 

Thus the Christian army advanced to Jaffa. The two 
armies. Christian and Saracen, then met on a plain near 
the seashore, called Azotus. Saladin commenced the 
attack upon the wing of Richard's army, composed of the 
French troops under the command of the duke of Bur- 
gundy. They resisted and drove the Saracens back. 
Then Richard gave the signal for a charge, and rode for- 
ward at the head of his troops, mounted on his famous 
charger, and flourishing his heavy battle-axe. This axe 
was a ponderous weapon. Richard had ordered it made 
before leaving England, and it was so immense that few 
men could lift it. But as Richard Coeur de Lion was a 
man of marvellous strength, he wielded this huge weapon 
with prodigious force. When it came down upon the 
head of a steel-clad knight, on his horse, it often crushed 
both man and steed to the ground. The darts and jave- 
lins of the Mohammedans glanced oflT from King Richard's 
steel armor, without inflicting any wound, while Saracen 
after Saracen was felled to the earth by the blows from 
his ponderous battle-axe. 

It was not long before Saladin's army was flying in all 
directions, pursued by the crusaders. After this battle 
Richard established his army in Jaffa. In the meantime 
Saladin was collecting forces for a more vigorous resist- 
ance. Historians have condemned this inactivity of 
Richard's army for so many weeks at Jaffa, thus enabling 
Saladin to rally his men and become more determined in 



224 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

his defence. During the time while Richard's army was 
resting and feasting at Jaffa, King Richard and Saladin 
entered upon several negotiations, which were carried on 
through Saphadin, the brother of Saladin, who was pro- 
vided with a safe conduct through the enemies' lines. 
One of these propositions was that Richard and Saladin 
should cease hostilities and become allies, and that their 
difficulties should be settled by a marriage between Joanna, 
Richard's sister, the ex-queen of Sicil}', and Saphadin, the 
brother of Saladin. But this, and all other propositions, 
at length came to naught, and in November, Richard ad- 
vanced with his army as far as Bethan}^, with a forlorn 
hope that they might find themselves strong enough to 
attack Jerusalem. But this hope was vain. Richard's 
men were d^'ing from sickness and famine, caused by a 
large amount of their provisions being spoiled by the fall 
rains which had now set in, and many of the discouraged 
soldiers deserted. These losses so thinned King Richard's 
ranks, that he was obhged to retreat to Acre. While they 
were at Bethany, a band of crusaders had ascended a 
mountain overlooking Jerusalem. King Richard was 
asked to come and see the holy city in the distance. 
" No," said he, covering his face with his cloak, " those 
who are not worthy of conquering Jerusalem should not 
look upon it." 

While at Acre, Richard learned that Saladin was be- 
sieging Jaffa. The historian Guizot thus describes the 
rescue of Jaffa from the Saracens : — 

"When King Richard arrived at Jaffa, the crescent 
alread}^ shone upon the walls ; but a priest who had cast 
himself into the water in front of the royal vessel told 
Richard that he could yet save the garrison, although the 
town was already in the hands of the enemy. The ship 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 225 

bad not yet reached the landing-stage, and ah-eady the 
king was in the water, which reached to his shoulders, 
and was uttering the war-cry ' St. George ! ' The in- 
fidels, who were then plundering the city, took fright, and 
three thousand men fled, pursued by four or five knights 
of the cross. The little corps of Christians intrenched 
themselves behind planks of wood, and tuns ; ten tents 
held the whole of the army. Day had scarcely dawned, 
when a soldier flew to Richard's bedside. ' O king, we 
are dead men ! ' he cried ; ' the enem}' is upon us.' The 
king sprang up from his bed, scarcely allowing himself 
time to buckle on his armor, and omitting his helmet and 
shield. ' Silence ! ' he said to the bearer of the bad news, 
' or I will kill you.' Seventeen knights had gathered round 
C(jeur de Lion, kneeling on the ground, and holding their 
lances ; in their midst were some archers, accompanied by 
attendants who were recharging their arquebuses. The 
kino; was standing; in the midst. The Saracens endeavored 
in vain to overawe this heroic little band ; not one of them 
stirred. At length, under a shower of arrows, the knights 
sprang on their horses, and swept the plain before them. 
They entered Jafla towards evening, and drove the Mus- 
sulmans from it. From the time of 'daybreak Richard 
had not ceased for a moment to deal out his blows, and 
the skin of his hand adhered to the handle of his battle- 
axe." 

Still more graphically do the old chronicles thus describe 
this battle : — 

" Where the fight was fiercest there rode King Richard, 
and the Turks fell beneath his flashing sword. Then the 
galley-men, fearing for their lives, left the battle and took 
refuge in their boats, and the Turks thought to seize the 
town while the armv was fiojhtino^ in the field. But the 



226 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

king, taking witli him but two knights and two cross- 
bowmen, entered the town and dispersed the Turks who 
had entered, and set sentinels to guard it, and then, 
hasting to the galleys, gathered together the men, and 
encouraging them with his words, brought them back to 
the fight. And as he led them to the field, he fell upon 
the enemy so fiercely, that he cut his way all alone into 
the midst of the ranks, and they gave way before him. 
But they closed around him, and he was left alone, and 
at that sight our men feared greatly. But alone in the 
midst of his enemies he remained unmoved, and all as 
they approached him were cut down like corn before the 
sickle. And there rode against him a great admiral, dis- 
tinguished above all the rest by his rich caparisons, and 
with bold arrogance assayed to attack him, but the king 
with one blow of his sword cut off his head and shoulder 
and right arm. Then the Turks fled in terror at the sight, 
and the king returned to his men, and lo ! the king was 
stuck all over with javelins, like the spines of a hedge- 
hog, and the trappings of his horse with arrows. The 
battle lasted that day from the rising to the setting sun, 
but the Turks returned to Saladin, and he mocked his 
men, and asked them where was Malek-Rik, whom they 
had promised to bring him. But one of them answered, 
' There is no knight on earth like Malek-Rik ; nay, nor 
ever was from the beginning of the world.' " 

King Richard's forces were now so weakened, that he 
found it would be hopeless to endeavor to take Jerusalem. 
The Archduke Leopold, of Austria, had left the army 
with his men and gone home. This was caused by a 
quarrel between liimself and King Richard. Saladin hav- 
ing left Ascalon, Richard hastened to repair its fortifica- 
tions. In order to encourage his soldiers, he himself 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 227 

carried stones to the workers, urging the archduke to do 
the same. " I am not the son of a mason," replied the 
Austrian, haughtily. Whereupon, Richard, in auger, 
struck him a blow in the face, which indignit}' so enraged 
the archduke, that he immediately took his forces and re- 
turned to Austria. 

Another event occurred at this time, the blame of which 
some historians lay upon King Richard. Conrad of Mont- 
ferrat, one of the claimants to the title of King of Jerusa- 
lem, was murdered by two emissaries, sent by the "Old 
Man of the Mountain," who was a famous chieftain, 
living with his baud of bold robbers among the moun- 
tains. The men under this chieftain were trained to 
obey without any dissent the commands given by their 
leader. A story was spread abroad that these men were 
hired by King Richard to kill Conrad. The friends of 
Richard declared, however, that it was caused b}^ a quar- 
rel between Conrad and the Old Man of the Mountain. 

Two incidents are related of Saladin's 'generosity 
towards Richard, his foe. At one time King Richard 
was very sick with fever, and Saladin supplied him with 
cooling drinks and fresh fruits, thus kindly ministering 
to the comfort of his sick enemy. At another time, dur- 
ing a battle with the Saracens, Saladin beheld King 
Richard standing on a little knoll, surrounded by his 
knights. " Wh}^ is he on foot?" asked Saladin, for 
Richard's famous charger had been killed that day in the 
battle. " The king of England should not fight on foot, 
like a common soldier," exclaimed Saladin, and forthwith 
he sent Richard a splendid horse as a present. When 
the steed was brought to the king, one of his knights 
mounted him to try his speed. Whereupon, the intelli- 
gent animal immediately turned and ran with his rider to 



228 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 

the camp of the Saracens. Saladin was so chagrined at 
this unlooked-for occurrence, and fearing lest Richard 
should imagine his kindly present had only been sent as 
a treacherous stratagem, immediately placed the Christian 
knight upon a more gentle horse, and sent with him a 
still handsomer charger, as a present to the English king, 
which Richard gladly received. 

Disquieting news now reached King Richard from P^ng- 
land. His brother John, aided by Philip of France, had 
deposed the chancellor, and caused himself to be made 
governor-general of the kingdom. Under these circum- 
stances, and the hopelessness of capturing Jerusalem, 
King Richard concluded a truce with Saladin, giving up 
Ascalon to him, but keeping Jaffa, Tyre, and the fort- 
resses along the coast, and promising to refrain from any 
hostilities during a period of three years, three months, 
three wrecks, three days, and three hours. "Then I will 
come back," said Richard, " with double the men that I 
now possess, and will reconquer Jerusalem." Saladin 
answered: "that if the Holy City was to fall into the 
hands of the Christians, no one was more worthy of con- 
quering it than Malek-Rik." 

On the 9th of October, 1192, Richard Coeur de Lion 
left Palestine to return to his own kingdom. The queens 
embarked first in their vessel, followed soon after by Rich- 
ard in his war-ship. As the shore of the Holy Land was 
receding from view, Richard gazed upon it from the deck 
of his galles' ; and stretching out his arms towards it, 
exclaimed, — 

"Most holy land, farewell! I commend thee to 
God's keeping and care. May He give me life and 
health to return and rescue thee from the hands of the 
infidels." 




"MOST HOLY LAND, FAREWELL 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 229 

A storm soon arose, and the vessels of King Richard's 
fleet were separated. The queens arrived safely in Sicily, 
but King Richard was driven to the Island of Corfu. Here 
he hired three small vessels to take him to the head of the 
Adriatic Sea, and then he endeavored to cross throuo-h 
Germany by land. He assumed the garb of a merchant, 
lest his many enemies should discover him. Thus he 
travelled through the mountains of the Tyrol. But havino- 
sent a ring with a messenger to the governor of Goritz, 
seeking a passport, the governor exclaimed, " This ring 
belongs to no merchant, but only to the king of England." 

Thus was King Richard discovered ; and he was seized 
by his old enemy, Duke Leopold of Austria, and put 
into prison. Which event, coming to the knowledge of 
the emperor of Germany, he himself claimed the illustri- 
ous captive, saying, "A duke cannot possibly keep a 
king." 

So King Richard was shut up in the castle of Trifels by 
the emperor, where he languished for two years. Mean- 
while neither his wife nor mother could obtain any trace 
of him; and even after his brother John learned that 
Richard was imprisoned by the emperor of Germany, he 
joined King Philip of France in making propositions to 
the German emperor, promising to pay him large sums of 
money if he would keep the king of England in prison. 
The place of King Richard's imprisonment was said to 
have been discovered by a celebrated troubadour named 
Blondel, who had known Richard in Palestine, and was 
now travelling through Germany. As he went along in 
front of the castle where Richard was confined, he was 
singing one of the troubadour songs. When he had fin- 
ished one stanza, King Richard, who knew the song, sang 
the next verse through the bars of his prison window. 



230 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

Blondel recognized the voice, and perceiving that Richard 
was a prisoner, he made all speed to go to England and 
inform King Richard's friends of his sad situation. It is 
said that the first news Berengaria received of Richard's 
fate was by seeing a jewelled belt offered for sale in Rome. 
This belt she recognized as one which King Richard wore 
when he left Acre. But upon inquiry, she could only 
learn that Richard was somewhere in Germany. The 
news that King Richard Coeur de Lion was a prisoner in 
Germany roused great excitement in England and in 
Rome. The Pope excommunicated Duke Leopold for 
havino; seized Richard, and threatened to excommunicate 
the emperor if he did not release him. Finally the empe- 
ror agreed to set the king of England free upon the pay- 
ment of a certain sum of money, two- thirds of which were 
to be received before the king should be released. At 
length, in Februar}-, 1194, about two years after Richard 
was first imprisoned, the first payment was made, and 
King Richard Coeur de Lion was allowed to go free ; and 
he arrived in England in March, when the people gave 
him a magnificent reception. As soon as Richard had 
arranged his affairs, he determined to be crowned a sec- 
ond time as king of England, lest the two years of his 
captivity might have weakened his claims. He was ac- 
cordingly recrowned with the greatest pomp and splendor. 
At the request of his mother he pardoned his brother 
John, saying, "I hope that I shall as easily forget the 
injuries he has done me as he will forget mj' forbearance 
in pardoning him." But Richard treated Berengaria with 
great unkindness and open neglect, until he was suddenly 
seized with a severe illness, which so alarmed him that he 
called for a great number of monks and priests, and 
began to confess his sins, vowing, if God would spare 



RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 231 

his life, he would abandon his profligate and wicked hab- 
its, and treat his wife with kindness. He recovered, and 
he so far kept his vows as to send for his wife, and be- 
come, outwardly at least, reconciled to her. But the fault 
was all on his side ; for poor Berengaria had given him 
no cause for his cruel treatment of her. The reiorn of 
Richard Coeur de Lion was soon to end, however, and the 
cause was one which shed neither glory nor honor upon 
his fame. A rich treasure had been found by one of his 
vassals, the viscount of Limoges. Richard at once 
claimed it, and the viscount sent him half. But Richard 
determined to secure the whole of it, and accordingly 
went to the castle of Chaluz, where the treasure was, and 
laid siege to the place. It was well defended, but provi- 
sions becoming short, the garrison wished to capitulate. 
"No," said Richard, "I will take your place by storm, 
and cause vou all to be hano-ed on the walls." 

While King Richard was examining the point of attack, 
a 3'oung archer, named Bertrand de Gourdon, shot an 
arrow at the king, and wounded him upon the shoulder. 
The town was taken and all the garrison were hung. 
King Richard's wound, through the unskilful handling of 
the surgeons, proved to be fatal. As he was dying he 
sent for Gourdon. "Wretch!" said Richard to the 
archer, " what had I done to you that you should have 
attempted my life ? " 

" You have put my father and two brothers to death," 
said Bertrand, " and you wanted to hang me." 

The dying king, at last struck with remorse for his 
many cruel deeds, said, " I forgive you," and he ordered 
the chains of the archer to be removed, and that he should 
receive one hundred shillings. This humane command, 
however, was not obeyed, and Bertrand was flayed alive. 



232 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 

Richard Coeur de Lion died on the 6th of April, 1199, at 
the ao-e of forty- two, and was buried, according to his 
request, at the foot of the grave of Henry II., his father, 
in Fontevraud Abbey. The figures in stone of the father, 
mother, and son, who quarrelled so much while living, all 
lie now on one monument. Richard Coeur de Lion was 
well called the Lion-Hearted. His glory consisted in his 
reckless and brutal ferocity. He pretended to be the 
champion and defender of the cause of Christ, but he used 
the sacred name of Christianity only as a means of grati- 
fvino; his own wild ambitions and his inhuman thirst for 
blood. Tliough he won the fame of a brave and valorous 
knight, his savage barbarity and reckless cruelties tar- 
nished all the brightness of his glory, and brought dis- 
grace and dishonor upon tlie sacred cause of true religion, 
of which he pretended to be the most zealous upholder. 



ROBERT BRUCE. 233 



ROBERT BRUCE. 

1274-1329 A.D. 

" Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled, 
Scots, whom Bruce has aften led, 
Welcome to yom- gory bed. 
On to victorie ! " — Burks. 

" I )RUCE to the rescue! Bruce to the rescue!" was 

-*--^ the war-cry of the vahant little band of Scottish 
chiefs who gathered under the banner of Robert Bruce, 
who was the seventh lord of Annandale, and also earl 
of Carrick. 

The heroic AVilliam Wallace had already endeavored to 
free his country from the yoke of bondage in which they 
were held by the English king, Edward 1. 

Alexander III., the ninety-fifth king of Scotland, had 
died in 1286, leaving his grand-daughter Margaret, the 
Fair Maid of Norway, heir to the Scottish throne. This 
child-princess was betrothed to the son of the English 
king; but when quite young, as she sailed from her 
father's castle in Norway to her future home in Scotland, 
she died on the voyage thither. Thus the crown of Scot- 
land became the cause of dispute amongst thirteen noble- 
men, descendants of members of the royal family, who 
set up claims to the vacant throne. 

There were but two claimants whose pretensions were 
based upon sufficient grounds to insure any prospect of 
success. These were John Baliol and Robert Bruce, 



234 ROBERT BRUCE. 

grandson and son of the two elder daughters of David, 
earl of Huntingdon, who was the younger brother of 
King William, the Lion, who was the ninety-third king 
of Scotland. This Robert Bruce was the grandfather of 
the hero who is the subject of this sketch. 

King Edward of England, having been requested by 
the Scots to act as arbitrator amongst all these claimants, 
decided to give the preference to John Baliol, who 
was crowned king in November, 1292, having sworn 
fealty to Edward, king of England. Thus did the wily 
English sovereign place upon the Scottish throne a king 
weak enough to be used as his tool. And poor John 
Baliol soon found, to his sorrow, that he was a king only 
in name ; but in reality a slave in the hands of his ambi- 
tious and powerful neighbor. 

Edward, having placed the feeble Baliol upon the 
throne of Scotland, spared him no humiliation. Ever}' 
time an}' Scottish petitioner appealed to Edward, Baliol's 
liege lord, regarding any decision of the king of Scot- 
land which had failed to satisfy his subject, Edward 
would summon Baliol to appear at his court, to render an 
account of his judgment. This occurred four times the 
first year of his reign. At length Baliol refused to com- 
ply longer with these demands of Edward, whereupon 
the English king advanced with an army against the 
Scots. After a fearful massacre at Berwick, and the 
capture of several castles by the English, Baliol begged 
for peace, and was sent to the Tower in lionorable cap- 
tivity. He subsequently ended his life in his domains in 
Normandy. Robert Bruce at once claimed the crown. 
But Edward exclaimed, angrily, "Do you think that I 
have nothing else to do but to conquer kingdoms for 
you?" 




WARREN, EARL OF SURREY, GOVERNOR OF SCOTLAND UNDER 
EDWARD L 



ROBERT BRUCE. 235 

Scotland was now treated as a conquered country ; and 
Warrene, earl of Surrey, was appointed governor, Hugh 
de Cressingliam, treasurer, and William Ormesby, chief 
justicier. 

Robert Bruce the grandfather, and also Robert Bruce' 
the father of our hero, considered it the better part of 
discretion to resign all pretensions to the throne of Scot- 
land. They therefore swore fealty to King Edward. 

Robert de Bruce, the sixth lord of Annandale, had 
accompanied Edward, when prince of England, and 
Louis I. of France, to the HoW Land, where he acquired 
great renown. A romantic story is told of his courtship 
and marriage. 

One da}' this knight of the crusades was riding 
through the domains of Turnberr}^ As he was pro- 
ceeding leisureh' along through the majestic forests, 
charmed with the beauty of the sylvan scenery, watching 
the glinting sunbeams dance athwart the leaves, and pla}- 
hide-and-seek with the shadows, in the cosey nooks where 
moss-banks nestled, he was startled by the sound of a 
hunting-horn ; and shortly a gay cavalcade of lords and 
ladies dashed through the forest on their way to the 
castle near by. One of the ladies, Margaret, countess 
of Carrick, the owner of this castle, and hostess of this 
splendid retinue, being captivated by the lordly bearing 
of the handsome, unknown knight, with the freedom and 
natural courtesy of one who felt her independence upon 
her own domain, reined in her higli-bred steed, whose 
wild spirits were curbed by slightest touch of her fair 
fingers, and, bowing to the knight with queenly dignity, 
she invited him to join her visitors, and share her hospi- 
tality. Robert de Bruce, knowing the high position of 
this gracious lady, and fearing to accept too eagerly such 



236 ROBERT BRUCE. 

an unexpected honor, courteously declined the kind invi- 
tation, which he supposed had been offered only out of a 
courtly hospitality, as he had been found a stranger 
within her own domains. But the beautiful countess, 
moved b}^ some strange attraction, which she did not 
stop to analyze, gaily laid hold of the reins of his steed, 
and laughingly replied : — 

" Ah, noble knight ! no trespasser on my grounds ever 
escapes imprisonment in my castle ; " and thereupon she 
led him away, like a captive knight, to her castle of 
Turnberry. 

For fifteen days he was the honored guest amidst all 
the festivities at the castle, and the first in the chase, by 
the side of the bewitching countess ; and, having obtained 
her heart, as well as her hand, they were married, with- 
out the consent of the king, whose ward she was, or the 
knowledge of her relatives ; in consequence of which the 
estates and castle of the young countess were seized by 
the sovereign, and were only saved to her by the pay- 
ment of a large fine to the crown. 

The eldest son of this brave knight and beautiful coun- 
tess, who had risked so much for love, and whose mar- 
riage was as romantic as any described in Scottisli tales 
of fiction, was Robert the Bruce, our hero, who was after- 
wards King Robert I. of Scotland. He was born on the 
21st of March, 1274. He spent his early youth at Car- 
rick, where he was distinguished for his brave spirit and 
persevering energy. 

The grandfather of Robert the Bruce, Robert, lord of 
Annandale, refusing to take the oath of homage to his 
rival, John Baliol, when King Edward of England decided 
in his favor, gave up his Scottish domains in Annandale 
to his son, the earl of Carrick, lest he should hold them 



nOBEKT BRUCE. 237 

as Edward's minion. This proceeding was also followed 
by the earl in 1293, in behalf of his son, Robert the 
Bruce, who was then serving the king of England. Not- 
withstanding the sympathy of young Bruce with the cause 
of Scotland, and his resolve to assert his claims to the 
Scottish crown, he had, during the greater part of the 
reign of his weak rival, adhered to the fortunes of Ed- 
ward, deeming it better policy to yield himself to the 
uncontrollable necessity of circumstances, rather than 
risk his cause by undue haste. Sometimes he appeared 
to assert his own pretensions to the crown, and the inde- 
pendence of his country ; and then, again, he yielded 
submission to the superior power of the English king, 
whose good-will he wished to keep until a favorable 
opportunity should offer itself of openly asserting his 
rights. Robert might have obtained the crown if he 
would have acknowledged the superior power of Eng- 
land, and submitted himself as a vassal to the English 
king, as Baliol had done. But he would not receive it on 
any other terms than as a free crown, which had been 
worn by his ancestors, and of right belonged to him. 

When John Baliol was raised to sovereign power, the 
family of Bruce, although looking upon his elevation with 
envy, deemed it prudent to conceal their dissatisfaction, 
and the father of young Robert, who possessed the earl- 
dom of Carrick, in right of the countess his wife, resigned 
to his son these possessions, who was admitted to do 
homage to Baliol, the Scottish king, and thus became 
earl of Carrick. 

When John Baliol had rebelled against Edward, king 
of England, young Bruce deemed it unsafe to rank under 
the banner of his natural sovereign, and therefore joined 
the side of Edward. Whereupon, the Scottish king, John 



238 ROBERT BRUCE. 

Baliol, confiscated his estate of Annandale, as that of a 
traitor, and gave it to one of his followers, Comyn, earl 
of Buchan. Some of the English peers, suspecting the 
fidelity of young Bruce, who had now retired to the family 
estate in England, summoned him to Carlisle to do hom- 
age. He forthwith obeyed, and swore fidelity to the 
cause of Edward, and in order to show his loyalty, he 
assembled some of his followers, and overran the lands 
of Sir William Douglas, a Scottish patriot, and even 
carried away his wife and children. Stung with remorse, 
however, for this treacherous act, which was really ex- 
torted from him, young Bruce then joined the Scottish 
army, which Wallace, the brave patriot, together with the 
bishop of Glasgow, and steward of Scotland, had raised. 
The Scottish leaders were too much at variance amongst 
themselves to make a resolute stand. The English, 
knowing of their dissensions, sent messengers to treat 
with them. With the exception of William Wallace, they 
sued for peace, and threw down their arms without strik- 
ing a blow. Bruce deemed it prudent to submit with his 
countrymen to the P^ngiish king, but such had been the 
inconstancy of this nobleman, that the English demanded 
security for his future fidelity. Whereupon the bishop of 
Glasgow, the lord steward, and Alexander de Lindesay, 
came forward as his securities, until he should deliver 
over his daughter Marjory as an hostage for his loyalty. 
The conduct of young Bruce seems to us vacillating and 
unpatriotic, viewed from the present age ; but he must be 
judged by the spirit of those troublesome times, and his 
after heroic deeds in his country's behalf must soften a 
stern judgment regarding his changeable and uncertain 
conduct at this time. By the side of the staunch patriot- 
ism of the brave William Wallace, various acts of Robert 




.'JV 



-'jaff'-"'" 






EUTUS I. MEX SCOT' 
AXNO DOM. 3yiC C CATl. 



ROBERT BRUCE. 239 

Bruce, at this period of his life, are thrown into an on- 
favorable light, but his seeming treachery he regarded as 
actuated by a prudent policy. Whether he would have 
gained the deliverance of his country sooner, or suffered 
irretrievable defeat, had he earlier and more steadfastly 
espoused the patriotic cause, we find ourselves at a loss to 
determine, after a careful study of that conflicting epoch. 
The history of Robert Bruce would not be complete 
without a brief account of William Wallace, which will 
help to give a clearer idea of the affairs of Scotland at 
that time. 

William Wallace was descended from an ancient family 
in the west of Scotland. Having been provoked and in- 
sulted by an English officer, Wallace had put him to 
death, and therefore was obliged to flee for safety to the 
forests. Here he collected a large band of bold men. 
Some of these were outlawed for crimes ; others, on ac- 
count of bad fortune or hatred of the English, were will- 
ing participants in this daring scheme. William Wallace 
possessed gigantic strength of body as well as heroic 
courage, and so was admirably suited to become a leader 
in such a perilous enterprise. 

This little band of Scottish warriors made many suc- 
cessful raids upon their English foes, until the fame of 
their exploits became so wide-spread that the English 
were filled with terror, and their enslaved countrymen 
were inspired with hopes of freedom from the galling 
yoke of oppression which fettered their hitherto^ inde- 
pendent country. 

Wallace now determined to strike a decisive blow 
against the English government. Warrene, the governor 
of Scotland, had retired to England on account of his 
health, so that the administration of Scotland was left in 



240 ROBERT BRUCE. 

the hands of Ormesby, the justiciary, and Cressingham, 
who held the office of treasurer. Wallace formed a plan of 
attacking Ormesby, at Scone ; but the justiciary being in- 
formed of such intentions, fled in terror to England. All 
the other English officers imitated his example. The 
Scots, encouraged by these events, sprang to arms. 

Many of the principal barons, including Sir William 
Douglas, openly countenanced the party of Wallace. 
Meanwhile, ATarrene, earl of Surrey, collected an army 
of forty thousand men, in the north of P^ngland, and in- 
vaded Scotland. He suddenly entered Annaudale, and 
came up with the enemy at Irvine, before the Scottish 
forces were prepared for battle. Many of the Scottish 
nobles, alarmed at this unforeseen event, submitted to the 
English, and renewed their oaths of fealty, and gave 
hostages for their fidelity, whereupon they received par- 
don for their rebellion. Others, who had not openly de- 
clared themselves, thought best to side with the English, 
and wait a better opportunity for avowing themselves as 
partisans of the Scottish cause. But Wallace persevered 
in his bold enterprise, and marclied northwards and es- 
tablished his little army at Cambuskenneth. When AYar- 
rene advanced to Stirling, he found Wallace on tlie 
opposite banks of tlie Forth. Wallace had chosen a 
position near a narrow bridge which spanned the Forth, 
and as the English, with thoughtless precipitation, com- 
menced to cross, Wallace attacked them before they were 
fully formed, and put them to rout, gaining a complete 
victory. Among the slain was Cressingham, who was so 
hated 1)y the Scots that they flayed his dead body, and 
made saddle-girths of his skin. Warrene, finding his re- 
maining forces much dismayed by this defeat, returned 
again to England. 



ROBERT BRUCE. 241 

Wallace was now made regent, or guardian of the 
country, by his enthusiastic followers ; and his brave- band, 
not content with their past exploits, invaded England, 
and laid waste many counties, returning to their native 
land loaded with spoils, and crowned with glory. 

But now factions amongst the Scots themselves caused 
a disaster which deprived them of all they had gained. 
The Scottish nobles were unwilling that Wallace should 
be placed over them in power ; and that patriot, to avoid 
jealousies and dissensions, resigned his authority as re- 
gent, retaining only his command over that body of war- 
riors who refused to follow any other leader than the 
brave Wallace, under whose banner they had so often 
been led to victor}'. 

The Scottish army was now divided into three bands. 
The chief power devolved on the steward of Scotland, and 
Comyn of Badenoch. The third band was commanded 
by the valiant Wallace. Edward, having collected the 
entire military force of England, Wales, and Ireland, 
marched into Scotland with an arm}^ of nearly one hun- 
dred thousand men. 

When the two forces met in battle at Falkirk, the Eng- 
lish archers chased the Scottish bowmen off the field, then 
shooting their arrows amongst the pikemen, they were 
thrown into confusion, and the English cavalry soon put 
the Scots to rout, with great slaughter. Some historians 
state that the loss of the Scots, upon this occasion, was 
fifty or sixty thousand men. In this general rout of the 
Scottish army, Wallace's superior militar^^ skill and pres- 
ence of mind enabled him to keep his band together, and 
retiring to the farther bank of a small river called the 
Carron, he marched along its banks protected from the 
enemy. Bruce, who was serving in the English army, 



242 ROBERT BRUCE. 

recognized the valiant Scottish chief, and calling out to 
him, desired a conference. This being granted, he en- 
deavored to convince Wallace of the helplessness of his 
rash enterprise, and advised him to submit. But the in- 
trepid Wallace replied, that if he had hitherto acted alone 
as the champion of his country, it was because no other 
would assume the place. He exhorted Bruce to espouse 
the cause of his enslaved land, representing to him the 
glory of the enterprise, and hope of opposing success- 
fully the power of the English. With enthusiasm he de- 
clared that he would prefer to give his own life, and the 
existence of the nation, when they could only be pre- 
served b}^ receiving the chains of a haughty victor. 

Bruce was greatly moved by these sentiments of brave 
patriotism, and regretting his engagements to Edward, 
the enemy of his people, resolved to embrace the cause 
of his oppressed country. 

We cannot follow tlie brave and valiant Wallace through 
his after career, and will but note his sad and unworthy 
fate. He was betrayed into Edward's hands by Sir John 
Monteith, who had been his friend. Edward ordered 
Wallace to be carried in chains to London, where he was 
tried as a rebel or traitor, though he had never sworn 
fealty to England ; and he was executed on Tower Hill. 
This barbarous crueltv of the Eno-lish king; only inflamed 
the Scots to fresh rebellions ; and they now again sprang 
to arms, shouting, " Bruce to the rescue ! " 

Robert Bruce had long resolved to attempt to free his 
enslaved country. The death of William Wallace, and 
the memory of his patriotic exhortation after the battle of 
Falkirk, on the banks of the river Carron, added fresh 
impetus to this resolve ; and his open avowal could be no 
longer delayed on account of two incidents which hap- 
pened about this time. 




•'BRUCE WAS NOT SLOW IN TAKING THE WARNING. 



ROBERT BRUCE. 243 

Bruce had ventured to disclose this resolve to John 
Coniyn, surnamed the Red, a powerful nobleman and 
warm friend. He found Comyn apparently in full accord 
with his avowed sentiments. But that nobleman after- 
wards treacherously revealed the secret to the Enolish 
king. Edward did not immediately seize and imprison 
Bruce, because he desired also to ensnare his three 
brothers, who resided in Scotland. But he placed spies 
over Bruce ; and a nobleman, Gilbert de Clare, one of the 
lords in Edward's court, but also a friend of Robert 
Bruce, having learned of the danger which threatened 
him, and fearing to risk his own position by an open 
warning, sent Bruce a pair of golden spurs and a purse 
of gold by his servant, with this message: " My master 
sent these to thee, and bid me say, that the receiver 
would have sagacity enough to determine quickly to what 
use they should be put." 

Bruce was not slow in taking the warning. Evidently, 
some one at court had betrayed him ! Ah, he had it ! 
surely it could be no other than the Red Comyn ! 

There is a story told, that three days previous to this 
event, Robert Bruce was praying at the altar, in a chapel 
where afterwards stood St. Martin's church. It was mid- 
night, and Bruce was alone. With tearful eyes he ex- 
claimed, — 

" Yes, at the foot of this high altar, I'll swear forthwith 
to fling the yoke from off me, in spite of hostile man and 
misleading fiend ; knowing that if I put trust in, and pay 
obedience to, the King of kings, m^' triumph shall be sure, 
my victory complete ! " 

"Amen to that!" whispered a sweet and plaintive 
voice in the ear of the kneeling earl. 

Bruce sprang to his feet, exclaiming, " Who art thou? " 



244 ROBERT BRUCE. 

But he saw only a muffled figure glide swiftly behind one 
of the pillars. Bruce piu'sued ; but the same soft voice 
replied : — 

" I am neither foe to Scotland's cause, nor shall be to 
him whose it is to see her righted, laggard although he be 
in responding to the urgent call. Farewell to the valiant 
Bruce ! We may meet again, 3'et nevermore in this holy 
place ; for even three days must not elapse and find him 
loitering near the stern and subtle Edward, or it will be 
woe to Scotland and to Scotland's mightiest lord ! Let 
the Bruce find bis way to the altar, upon which I place 
a token for his keeping and his use — the bugle-horn of 
the immortal Wallace ; with which he summoned to his 
standard his faithful countrymen, and led them to victory, 
till he was overcome by treachery and death. Take this 
sacred bugle-horn, and sound the call for Scotland's 
freedom ! " 

Ere the astonished Bruce could answer, a figure shot 
past him, and was lost in the darkness. The earl, grop- 
ing his way in the dim light to the altar, found there the 
precious relic promised ; and he went forth under the star- 
lit midnight sk}-, vowing to strike a blow for his enslaved 
country. Bruce needed no second warning of his danger, 
but the very night upon which he received the gilt spurs 
and purse of gold, he ordered two of his horses to be 
shod with reversed shoes, so that their course might not 
be traced, as snow had fallen, and the prints of the 
horses' feet would therefore be plainly visible. Then 
Bruce and one faithful attendant, named Walter Kennedy, 
hastily mounted their horses, and rode out of London 
under cover of the darkness of the night. 

As they left the great city behind them, Walter Ken- 
nedy ventured to say, — 



ROBERT BRUCE. 245 

" If I may be so bold, good master, where gang we on 
sic a night? Thou bidst me tell our talkative host at the 
inn, that Carrick's lord had a love adventure on foot. 
But me thinkst thou art too true a knight for that." 

" AYell said, my faithful Walter!" replied Bruce. 
" 'Tis in truth a love adventure, but concerns no lady 
fair, for my good wife is fairer to me than all other 
women. But 'tis for love of country we go forth, — to 
free our bonny Scotland. Surely that were love adven- 
ture worthy of both a valiant knight and loyal husband. 
Still it is for sake of lovely woman also ; for my sweet 
wife and fair daughters are e'en now in Scotland, and 
I fear me that their liberty, if not their lives, will soon be 
in danger, as I am warned that the wily King Edward 
is m}' bitter eneni}' and treacherous spy." 

"Ha! 'tis well spoken, good master!" exclaimed 
Kennedy, with enthusiasm, and lifting his Scotch bonnet 
from his head, he cried aloud, " Bruce to the rescue.'* 

"Hist, man!" said Bruce, laying his hand upon the 
bridle-rein of his faithful and loyal retainer; " knowest 
thou not that these English forests secrete hostile ears, to 
whom thy wild cry wouldst betray us? Not till I have 
gathered my forces and blown the bugle-horn of the 
valiant Wallace, will it be safe to openly sound that 
war-cr}^" 

The snow still fell thickly, and it was difficult to follow 
the right route through the blinding storm ; but ere long 
the moon shone out with brightness, and seemed to smile 
upon their perilous adventure, and promise success. 

After a few days Bruce arrived at Dumfries, in Annan- 
dale, the chief seat of his family interests. Here he found 
a great number of the Scottish noblemen assembled, and 
among the rest the treacherous John Comyn. These 



246 ROBERT BRUCE. 

noblemen were astonished at the appearance of Bruce 
amongst them, and still more when he avowed his deter- 
mination to live or die with them in the defence of the 
liberty of Scotland. All the nobles declared their unani- 
mous resolution to rise to arms in the cause of their en- 
slaved country. Comyn alone opposed this measure. 
Bruce, already sure of his treachery, followed Comyn on 
the dissolution of the assembly, and attacked him in the 
cloisters of the Gray Friars, through which he passed, 
and piercing him with his sword, left him bleeding on the 
ground. As Bruce rushed into the street, pale and agi- 
tated, Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, one of his friends, asked 
him if all was well. " I fear I have slain Comyn," replied 
Bruce, as he hastily mounted his horse. 

" Such a matter must not be left to doubt," exclaimed 
Kirkpatrick; "I'll mak sicker!" — and dashing into 
the sanctuary, he ran his dagger into the heart of the 
dvins; Comvn. 

This deed of Bruce and his friend, which would be justly 
condemned in the present age, was at that time regarded 
as an act of valiant patriotism and commendable policy. 
The family of Kirkpatrick were so proud of the deed that 
they took for the crest of their arms a hand with a bloody 
dagger, and chose for their motto those words, " I'll mak 
sicker ! " meaning, " I will make sure of it." 

Bruce now raised the standard of independence. Some 
priests and lords gathered round him, and boldl}' crowned 
him at Scone. On the day of the Annunciation, 1306. 
Scotland received her ninety-seventh king in the person 
of the valiant Robert Bruce ; and all Scotland rang with 
the joyful war-cry, " Bruce to the rescue ! " 

The undertaking of Bruce was one of a gigantic nature. 
Yet amidst all the seemingly insurmountable obstacles 



ROBERT BRUCE. 247 

which surrounded him from P^ugiish foes and Scottish 
grandees, — who were many of them in league against him, 
for tlie faction of Baliol and the powerful family of Comvn 
were his avowed enemies, — and though he was subjected 
to frequent perils, dangerous ambuscades and escapes, 
and many individual conflicts of daring courage, Robert 
Bruce persisted firmly in his patriotic design of restoring 
his enslaved country to freedom, and giving protection to 
the people who had formerly called his ancestor their 
king. 

Edward I. had now become aged and unwieldly, so that 
he could not readily mount on horseback. Wlien he was 
informed of this daring attempt of Bruce to wrest from 
his power a kingdom which liad cost him so much to gain 
and hold, he despatched a messenger to the Pope, pray- 
ing liim to issue the thunders of the Vatican against tliis 
l)old traitor and nnnxlerer of Comyn, and that he would 
place under interdict all who should endeavor to aid him 
or draw a sword in defence of liberty. This sentence of 
interdict, which the Pope often issued against sovereigns 
for the most trivial offences, involved a nation in the 
greatest misery. The people were deprived of all the ser- 
vices of the church ; no sacred rite was performed for 
them except the baptism of infants, and tiie administra- 
tion of the communion to the dying. 

The churches were deserted, and the altars were 
stripped of all the sacred ornaments. The dead lay 
uninterred, for the consecrated ground was prohibited ; 
and when at last the corpses must be buried, they were 
hurriedl}' piled up in ditches and covered over, with- 
out any church service to soothe the surviving mourners 
or hallow the last rites to the dead. The thunders of the 
Roman pontiff, however, fell powerless upon Robert the 



248 ROBERT BRUCE. 

Bruce, for he had previously secured the alUance of the 
Scottish clergy ; and as they wished to remain independ- 
ent of the English bishops, they braved the thunders of 
the hierarchy, and persisted in celebrating divine worship, 
notwithstanding its prohibition by the head of the church. 

In spite of old age and sickness, King Edward began 
to make extensive preparations for marching personally 
against the Scots. Prince Edward, his son, was twent}'- 
two years of age, and having not yet been kniglited, the 
king conferred this distinction upon him and bestowed 
upon him his spurs. Whereupon the 3'oung knight then 
conferred the same honor upon two hundred and seventy 
young lords who were about to become his comrades in 
arms. All the company then met at a magnificent ban- 
quet. A golden net was placed upon the table, contain- 
ing two swans, emblems of constanc}^ and fidelit}'. Then 
the king, placing his hands upon their heads, swore to 
avenge the death of Comyn and to punish the rebels of 
Scotland, without sleeping for two nights in the same 
place, and to start immediately afterwards for Palestine, 
in order to rescue the Holy Sepulchre. The 3'oung men 
swore the same oath as the king, and then they started 
for the frontiers, the king following more slowly, as he 
was too feeble to travel except upon a litter. 

The earl of Pembroke had been sent by King Edward, 
with a small army, into Scotland while the king was pre- 
paring his forces. Pembroke met the Scots at Methven, 
where a battle was fought in which the Scots were de- 
feated, and many of them killed and taken prisoners ; 
these were afterwards put to death with great cruelty by 
Edward's orders. Bruce retired into the mountains with 
five hundred men. King Edward had only been able to 
proceed as far as Carlisle ; but on his dying bed he was 



ROBERT BRUCE. 249 

cruelly ordering the Scottish prisoners to be beheaded, 
and still directing the operations of his troops. Bruce 
was living in the forests with a few faithful companions. 
His wife, daughter, and sister shared his adventuresome 
life. 

But as winter approached, the ladies were sent to the 
castle of Keldrummie, but they met with a sad fate here. 
The castle was stormed and taken by the English ; Nigel 
Bruce, Robert's younger brother, was cruelly put to death, 
and tlie queen of Scotland and her daughter, and also the 
sister of Bruce, were sent to England, where the queen 
was imprisoned, and the daughter and sister of King Rob- 
ert were shut up in wooden cages at Berwick and Rox- 
burgh, and were exposed to the public gaze. 

Bruce's little band were attacked by Lord Lorn, the 
Red Comyn's nephew, and therefore a bitter foe. Find- 
ing that his faithful followers were falling under the 
battle-axes of their enemies. King Robert sounded a re- 
treat ; and with marvellous bravery Robert Bruce, mounted 
upon his war-horse and clad in armor, took his position in 
the defile and defended the approach alone. At length 
three men, famous for their strength, sprang forward to- 
gether upon the royal champion, who calmly held his long 
sword on guard, and whose bright ej-es glittered beneath 
his helmet. One seized the bridle of the horse ; but 
Bruce raised his sword, and the arm of the assailant fell 
helpless, his hand being severed. Another fastened him- 
self on the leg of the horseman ; but the fiery war-horse 
reared, and again the invincible sword split his head open. 
The third now clutched the king's cloak ; but again the 
sword dealt its fatal blow, and the three assailants soon 
lay dead, while the valiant king escaped without a wound. 
Robert Bruce was now obliged to flee, and he took refuge 



250 ROBERT BRUCE. 

in the small island of Rachrin. His retreat was unknown 
to his enemies, and a large reward was offered to whoever 
would give news of "Robert Bruce, lost, stra^^ed, or 
stolen." 

During this time the Scottish king met with many ad- 
ventures. One day, leaving the island of Rachrin, he 
sailed with his little band in some small boats to the isle 
of Arran. On landing they met a woman, of whom the 
king inquii'ed if there had been any militar}' arrivals. 

"Surely, sir," she replied, "I can tell you of some 
who lately blockaded the English governor's castle. They 
maintain themselves in the woods near by." 

Robert Bruce, thinking that it was of brave Douglas of 
whom she spoke, blew his horn. It was answered b}' Sir 
James Douglas, who recognized the bugle of his sovereign, 
and when he hastily approached the king, they kissed for 
joy at such fortunate meeting. The small bands of King 
Robert and Douglas now crossed in boats to the opposite 
shore, and concealed themselves in a cavern, called the 
Cave of Colean. Learning that a large part}' of English 
were settled in the town of Turnberry, Bruce made a bold 
attack upon them, with three hundred men, and put two 
hundred of the English to the sword. The garrison, in 
the castle near hy^ were afraid to sally forth, as it was a 
dark night, and Bruce carried off the spoil, among which 
were the war-horses and household plate of the governor. 
Bruce now retired with his brave band to a green hill, 
called afterwards the " Weary Neuk." Here they rested 
for three daj^s, when they returned to the mountains to 
wait for reinforcements. It was then that King Robert 
learned of the sad fate of his wife, daughter, and sister, 
and the cruel death of his brother. But he humanely 
spared the life of every captive who fell into his hands. 



ROBERT BRUCE. 251 

and did not yield to the temptation to revenge himself bv 
their death, in retaliation for the wrongs he had suffered. 
In consequence of his privations and exposures, he was 
attacked with a severe sickness, and having found relief 
from a certain medicinal s|)riug, wdien he had afterwards 
established himself upon his throne, he founded a priory 
of Dominican monks there, and ordered houses to be built 
around the spring for eight lepers, and a certain sum of 
money and meal was settled upon the lands of Fulhirton, 
for their support. In compliment to Sir William Wallace, 
the relatives and descendants of that knight were in- 
vested with the right of placing the lepers upon this es- 
tablishment, known as the '• King's Ease." This was se- 
cured b}- charter, and the leper's charter-stone, which was 
a large stone of elliptical shape, has been handed down 
to modern times. 

King Robert had some very narrow escapes from death. 
It is reported that at one time. Sir Ingram Umfraville 
bribed an inhabitant of Carrick, with his two sons, to kill 
Bruce. These peasants, knowing that the king was ac- 
customed at an earlv hour everv mornino- to retire for 
meditation, accompanied by a single page, who carried 
his bow and arrows, determined to select such time for 
the attack. As the assailants approached, Bruce sus- 
pecting their design, took his bow and arrows from his 
attendant, bidding him retire to a place of safety, saying, 
"If I vanquish these traitors, you will have a sufficiency 
of arms, and if I fall, you can flee for you life." 

As the peasants drew near, the king discharged an 
arrow, which hit the father in the eye ; upon wdiich, the 
son, brandishing his battle-axe, rushed to the combat, but 
missing his blow, he stumbled and fell, and Robert sev- 
ered his head in two at one stroke. The third peasant, 



252 ROBERT BRUCE. 

with spear in hand, then rushed upon the king, but Bruce 
cut off the steel-head of the spear, and laid him also dead 
at his feet. When the page approached, he found the 
king wiping his good sword, while he remarked, " These 
would have been three gallant men had they not fallen 
victims to covetousness." 

At another time, King Kobert was surprised by a party 
of two hundred men wath bloodhounds. Bruce was ac- 
companied b}' only two men. The king was in a most 
perilous situation, but he stationed himself in a narrow 
gorge and despatched his companions in haste for succor. 
But before his band of brave Scots arrived. King Robert 
had slain with his dreadful sword, fourteen of his enemies, 
who were found piled up in the gorge, men and horses 
above each other. 

A party of English, under the command of John Lorn, 
now determined to search for the brave Bruce among the 
mountains of Carrick, where he was intrenched ; and in 
order to track the valiant Scottish king, Lorn carried with 
him a sagacious bloodhound which belonged to Bruce. 
This bloodhound proved of great use to Lorn, for it dis- 
covered his master by its scent, and the English pursued 
him so closely that Bruce divided his men in small bands 
and dispersed them, that they might thus more easily flee. 
Still being pressed sorely by the relentless foe, Robert 
dismissed all his men, each one to look out for his own 
safety ; and attended only by his foster-brother, who would 
not leave him, the brave Scottish king fled, still pursued 
by five of Lorn's men, led on by the bloodhound who 
tracked his master with sure scent. Meanwhile the dog 
was outrun by the five powerful mountaineers, and the 
king and liis foster-brother at last stood at bay to receive 
them. Bruce singled three of these assailants, leaving 



ROBERT BRUCE. 253 

his companion to combat with two. As the first ap- 
proached, the king cleft him through the skull with one 
blow of his weapon, and as the other two fell back for a 
moment, stunned by this unexpected disaster, Bruce 
sprang to the assistance of his foster-brother, whom he 
saw was in danger, and severing the head of one of his 
assailants from his body, he quickly laid his other two 
enemies dead, while the fifth was killed by his companion. 
When the king graciously thanked his faithful foster- 
brother for his aid, "It's like you to say so," he replied, 
" but you your-self slew four of the five." 

But now the cry of the hound was heard again, for 
Lorn and his band were on the trail. The kins and his 
companion hastily entered a small stream near by, to 
break the scent of the hound, and as the dog bounded up 
and down the banks, having lost all scent of his master, 
the foster-brother of King Robert shot him dead with an 
arrow, from their retreat in the forest. They then fled in 
safety from their pursuers, who gave up the chase. But 
King Robert had escaped from the bloodhound only to 
fall into other dangers. Three freebooters, pretending to 
be friends of the Scottish king, joined him and his foster- 
brother in their retreat through the forest. Bruce, sus- 
pecting these companions, desired them to walk at some 
distance before. 

" We seek the Scottish king," said the strangers : " you 
need not mistrust us." 

"Neither do I," replied Robert; "but until we are 
better acquainted, 3'ou must walk thus." 

When they came to a ruinous hut, where they rested for 
the night, the king ordered the strangers to remain at the 
other end of the room. But the past fatigues overcoming 
them, at last Bruce and his foster-brother fell asleep. 



254 ROBERT BRUCE. 

The kiug was roused from his slumbers by the approach 
of the three villauous freebooters, with arms in their 
hands, intent on his assassination. Robert laid hold of 
his sword, and stepping heavih* over his foster-bi'other, 
to awaken him, he rushed upon the assassins. After a 
fierce combat, in which his faithful foster-brother was 
killed, Bruce succeeded in overcoming these three villains, 
and left them dead on the spot. 

It was durino- these wanderings that Bruce was one day 
resting in a ruined hut in the forests. He was lying upon 
a handful of straw, and considering whether he should 
continue this strife to maintain his right to the Scottish 
throne, or if it were best to abandon an enterprise at- 
tended with such danger, and seeming at times almost 
hopeless, and go to the Holy Land and end his days in 
the wars wdth the Saracens. While thus musing, his 
attention was arrested by the moAx^ments of a spider on 
the roof of the hut above his head. This spider was 
trying to fix its w^eb on the rafters, and was swinging 
itself from one eave to another. The king was amused 
with the patience and energy displayed by the tiny insect. 
It had tried six times to reach one place, and failed. 
Suddenly the thought struck the Scottish monarch, " I 
have fought six times against the enemies of my country." 
He thereupon resolved that he would be guided in his 
future actions by the failure or success of this indefatiga- 
ble little insect. The next effort of the spider was suc- 
cessful, and King Robert then determined that he would 
make the seventh attempt to free his country, feeling 
confident that he should yet achieve the liberty of Scot- 
land. It is hence esteemed unlucky for a Bruce to kill a 
spider. Meantime Edward, the brother of Robert Bruce, 
and Sir James Douglas had made many successful raids 



ROBERT BRUCE. 255 

against the English. The}^ now joined their forces with 
those of King Robert, and they then overran Kyle, Car- 
rick, and Cunningham, which places had been in the pos- 
session of the English. 

In 1307 Pembroke advanced against Bruce with three 
thousand men. But though the Scottish king's band num- 
bered but six hundred men, they charged so valiantly with 
their long Scottish spears, that Pembroke's forces were 
completely routed, and he himself was obliged to flee for 
safety to the castle of Ayr. King Edward was so enraged 
by these events that he determined to march himself 
against this bold foe. But the English king had not pro- 
ceeded three leagues from Carlisle when death met him. 
With his dying breath he ordered his remains to be 
carried with the army, and not to be interred until the 
enemy was conquered. He had previously caused his son 
to sv/ear in the most solemn manner, that when he should 
die, he would boil his body in a caldron and separate the 
flesh from the bones, and having bui'ied the former, the 
bones were to be carried with the army to inspire his men 
with hatred against the Scots, while his heart was to be 
taken to the Holy Land. But Edward II., instead of 
obeying his father's dying commands, interred his body in 
Westminster ; and disbanding the army, the troops re- 
turned to England. The death of Edward I. gave new 
courage to the Scots. By this inglorious retreat of the 
English king, he lost all the advantages which his father 
had so dearly purchased for him. Edward Bruce, the 
brother of Robert, one of the most chivalrous knights, had 
conquered the I^nglish in Galloway, taking, in one 3'ear, 
thirteen castles. Meanwhile, Lord Douglas had recovered 
his ancient estate of Douglas from the English and made 
many conquests. 



256 ROBERT BRUCE. 

The north and the south being now reduced to obedi- 
ence, the united troops of Bruce and Douglas proceeded 
to the west to subdue the proud lord of Lorn. By a 
series of well-contested engagements in which no ordinary 
deo-ree of skill as a general was displayed, and the greatest 
personal courage, Bruce succeeded in wresting his much- 
injured country from the power of the English. Twice 
had the king of England attempted an expedition to re- 
conquer Scotland, but he had returned without result. 
The authority of Bruce was rapidly being established 
throughout his country. The castles of Perth, Dunbar, 
and Edinburgh were in his hands. Many stories are told 
of his heroic bravery in these contests, but we can only 
stop to note the taking of Perth. This was a strongly 
fortified garrison. The fortress was enclosed by a lofty 
wall and towers, surrounded by a deep moat filled with 
water, which set at defiance the efforts of the Scots for 
several weeks. At last. King Robert made a feint of 
raising the siege, struck his tents, and departed to some 
distance. But one night, when least expected, he ap- 
proached unperceived to the foot of the rampart, and 
walking up to his throat in the water, he seized a ladder 
and mounted to the wall's parapet, where he found a 
Scottish maiden whom the English had imprisoned, and 
who had escaped to the top of the wall, but could get no 
farther, as the frightful moat surrounded her on all sides. 
"It is but now to descend by these corded steps," 
whispered Bruce to the captive maiden, " and I'll ferry 
you across this muddy water." But the maiden was as 
brave as she was fair, and knowing that ^ny delay would 
risk the taking of the fortress by the brave Bruce, she 
heroically answered : — 

"Please your Grace, no! Allow me the keeping of 



ROBERT BRUCE. 257 

your dagger till you return with further scaling-gear and 
3'our valiant baud. Thus armed, I'll know how to defend 
myself, and I will watch these enemies till 3^ou return." 

So King Robert, leaving the brave girl as a sentinel 
upon the parapet, quickly waded again through the murky 
waters of the moat, and having regained his band, re- 
ported his experience. Immediately fifty of his most 
daring men, selected for their great height, plunged into 
the dark waters of the moat, led by the valiant Bruce. 

" Saw ye ever the like of that?" exclaimed a French 
knight who had lately joined the Scottish patriots. 
"What shall we say to our lords, when so worthy a 
knight and noble a monarch exposeth himself to such 
great peril to win a wretched hamlet? " 

With this he gaily threw himself into the water, followed 
by the rest of the Scottish army. When Bruce again 
reached the maiden she said, " The late revellers are now 
in their slumbers ; the watchword with them is ' The Lost 
/Standard.' " The brave maiden then aided the kino; to 
adjust the rope ladders, by which the Scots scaled the 
wall, one by one, until a strong force stood at their side. 
" ' The Lost Standard ' is the word," said the king ; " and 
now for the citadel ! " It was, indeed, a Lost Standard 
to the drows}' guards and sleeping revellers. The fortress 
was soon taken, and the captives set free. King Robert 
afterwards besieged the fortress of Stirling, when the 
governor. Sir Philip Mowbra}', contrived to make his 
appeals for succor reach the English king. Edward 
roused himself from his natural indolence, and raised 
a large army to march against Scotland. The forces of 
the English amounted to nearly one hundred thousand 
men. This brilliant army, with banners flying and lances 
glistening in the sunlight, presented a grand array. 



258 



ROBERT BRUCE. 



Meanwhile, King Robert was concealed in the forests 
with an army of only forty thousand men, nearly all on 
foot, awaiting the enemy, and preparing barriers to check 
the onslaught of the English. On the morning of the 
23d of June, 1313, the two armies met near Bannockburn. 
The night had been passed in prayer in the Scottish camp, 
and in'feasting and drunkenness by the English. At day- 
break the young English king was astonished at the good 
order observed in the Scottish ranks. 

" Do you think they will fight?" he asked of Sir Ingle- 
tram d'Umfreville. Just then the abbot of Inchaffray 
appeared before the Scottish troops, holding a crucifix in 
his hand ; all bent their knees with uncovered heads. 
" They are asking for mercy," cried King Edward. 
"Yes, sire," replied Umfreville, with a bitter smile; 
"but of God, not of you, sire. These men will win the 
battle or die at their posts." 

The sight of the vast English army might well cause 
the brave hearts of the small band of Scots to tremble ; 
but with the intrepid Bruce at their head, they awaited 
their foes with dauntless courage. So vast were the 
EngUsh forces, that it is said the country seemed on fire 
by the brightness of the shields and burnished helmets 
gleaming in the morning light. So vast was the multitude 
of embroidered banners, of standards, of pennons, and 
spears ; so apparently endless the crowds of knights, blaz- 
ing in their rich-colored and gemmed surcoats ; so large 
the extent of country occupied by their numerous tents, 
— that one might have thought all the warriors of the 
world were marching against this handful of valiant Scots. 
The English had hastened their march and arrived with 
some disorder in front of the Scottish army. King Robert 
Bruce, with a golden crown on his helmet, was riding 



ROBERT BRUCE. 259 

slowly before the line of his troops. As the brave king 
tlins rode along upon his favorite palfrey, clad in armor 
and carrying his battle-axe in his hand, encouraging his 
men by his calm voice and brave words, the English king- 
took special note of him, and remarked, "Doubtless 
yonder solitar}^ rider is of the foe, although he is almost 
as nigh to our front as to that of the rebels. Canst tell. 
Sir Knight, of what account he is, and wherefore this 
manoeuvre? " 

"My liege," replied Sir Giles d'Argentine, to whom 
King Edward had spoken, " he who yonder marshalleth 
the Scottish host was once my frequent associate, and is 
well known to me, as I clearly descr}' from the jewelled 
diadem which glittereth on his helmet. It is none other 
than Bruce himself." 

"If it is the arch-traitor Bruce," exclaimed Edward, 
' ' I marvel that no knight amongst you all is brave enough 
to challenge so audacious a foe." 

Whereupon Sir Henry Bohun, mounted on a magnifi- 
cent war-horse, came dashing against the Scottish mon- 
arch, whose small palfrey seemed an ill match for so 
strong and large a steed. " See ! the foeman coucheth 
his lance and pusheth at full speed against his victim, 
who recklessly advanceth, and now doth take his stand 
motionless as a rock, awaiting the onset of his enemy. 
Breathlessly the Scots and English watch the two 
combatants. On comes the impetuous Bohun. Surely 
some half score more plunges of the superb animal that 
bears him will unhorse the hero-king, unless unwonted 
presence of mind, nimbleness of movement, and dexterity 
of arm shall save him from the onrush of the powerful 
horse and gleaming spear. But the gallant Bruce has 
risen in his stirrups, and as his enemy rushes upon him, 



2(30 itOBERT BRUCI!. 

the lance is driven aside b}' the sweep of his strong arm, 
and the battle-axe, wielded with rare dexterity, stops not 
in its swing of meteor-like speed till down it falls upon 
the helmet of his foe with such true aim and mighty force 
that the weapon shatters the helmet and fractures the 
skull of Sir Henry Bohun, whose fiery steed bears his 
dead body back to the Enghsh ranks. Bruce returned 
slowly to his forces, and while some of his frieuds sur- 
rounded him, reproaching him for so rashly risking his 
life, the Scottish hero laughingly answered, while looking 
sorrowfully at his notched axe, ' See ! I have spoiled my 
o;ood battle-axe.' " 

The battle was commenced by the English at the order 
of Kins: Edward. The shock of the first charge of the 
English cavalry was terrible ; and as they were received 
on the spears of the Scottish infantry, the crash was heard 
at a great distance, and many English knights were 
dashed from their saddles by their furious steeds, which 
had been stabbed by the invincible spears of the Scots. 
The centre division, under the gallant Randolph, stood in 
a steady body to receive the charge of the English. These 
compact squares of the Scottish army were well calculated 
to break the masses which were opposed to them, and 
they suffered only from the arrows of the archers. The 
English cavalry charged with the greatest impetuosity, 
and endeavored to pierce through the phalanx of the 
Scottish spearmen ; but they received them like a wall of 
iron, while the English receded from the shock like broken 
waves which had spent their fury on the rocks. When 
both armies joined battle, the great horses of England 
rushed upon the Scottish lances as if upon a thick wood, 
and one mighty sound arose from the breaking of tlie 
lances, the shock of falling horsemen, and the shrieks of 





"see! j have spoiled mv good battle-axe," 



ROBERT BRUCE. 261 

the dying. The knights sang their war-cries, and rushed 
on to the charge. Groom fought Uke squire, and squire 
Uke knight, and yet vScotland's lion waved proudly over 
her bands, while the English banners rose and fell, and 
many of them were dyed in blood. At last the English 
began to hesitate. " They fly ! they fly ! " cried the Scots. 
Just then the camp followers of the Scottish army, who 
had been posted on an adjacent hill, excited by the ardor 
of the struggle, began to descend in a mass towards the 
field of battle. The Enoiish imao'ined themselves about 
to be attacked by a fresh army, and began a disorderly 
retreat. Upon which Robert Bruce charged valiantly with 
his reserves, and quickly decided the fate of the day. The 
earl of Pembroke seized the bridle of King Edward's 
horse and dragged him away from the battle-field. Sir 
Giles d'Argentine accompanied his king out of danger, 
and then rode back fearlessly amidst the conflict, exclaim- 
ing, "It is not my custom to fly!" This brave knight 
was cut down by the Scots. The victor v was complete. 
The fortress of vStirliiig surrendered immediately. The 
earl of Hereford, who had shut himself up in Bothwell 
castle, offered to capitulate, and was exchanged for the 
wife, daughter, and sister of the king of Scotland, who 
had been imprisoned in England for several years. Thus 
had the independence and freedom of Scotland been ob- 
tained by the brave Bruce and his dauntless little band of 
patriot warriors. Tlie swords of those who fought at 
Bannockburn were hung up in the halls of their descend- 
ants, and handed down to modern times as trophies of the 
liberty and independence which they achieved. The ben- 
eficial effects of this signal victory secured forever the 
independence of Scotland ; and when the two kingdoms 
were afterwards united, Scotland received equal rights 



262 ROBERT BRUCE. 

with England, and the national church of Scotland, with 
her universities and schools, were guaranteed to the people 
of Scotland forever. This famous battle taught the Scot- 
tish nation a lesson which it never forgot : that a phalanx 
of Caledonian spears, wielded by brave and disciplined 
men on foot, was superior to all the vaunted chivalry of 
the most renowned cavaliers. In 1327 King Edward II. 
of England was dethroned, and his young son was crowned 
in his place. The young prince was but fifteen years of 
age. Scotland had been recovering from her misfortunes 
under the firm and wise government of Robert Bruce. 
The independence of that kingdom had been acknowledged 
by England. The crown jewels, which had been formerly 
seized by Edward I., had been returned, and the little 
princess Joan, who was betrothed to David, tlie young 
son of Robert Bruce, had been taken to Berwick, accom- 
panied by the queen-dowager of England and a splendid 
retinue of attendants. The marriage was soon after cele- 
brated with great magnificence. Englishmen and Scots, 
who for half a century had met only as foes upon the 
field of battle, were now joined in friendly courtesies 
through this marriage. King Robert's wife Elizabeth had 
died before she saw this happy termination of the long 
hostilities. 

The Scottish king did not long survive these events. 
He was seized with a severe complaint, then supposed to 
have been leprosy, which at length proved fatal. When 
upon his death-bed he called around him his earls and 
1)arons, and commended to their care his young son Da- 
vid ; and the prince was thereupon crowned king of Scot- 
land. Robert Bruce, having settled the affairs of his 
kingdom and throne, summoned to his bedside his brave 
and faithful friend and o-allaut knig;ht. Sir James Douo;- 



ROBERT BRUCE. 263 

las, and entreated him to take his heart from his body 
after death, and have it embahned, and carry it to the 
Holy Laud, and leave it there in the Holy Sepulchre, in 
obedience to a vow he had made. "When I was hard 
beset," said the dying king, "I vowed to God that if I 
should live to see an end of my wars and Scotland free, I 
would raise the sacred standard against the enemies of 
my Lord and Saviour. But as I cannot myself accomplish 
this vow, I know no knight more worthy for the mission 
of bearing the heart of King Robert of Scotland to the 
Holy Land." To this affecting request Lord Douglas re- 
plied, with tears in his eyes, " Ah, most gentle and noble 
king ! A thousand times I thank you for the great honor 
3'ou have done me in making me the bearer of so great 
and precious a treasure. Most faithfully and willingl}^, 
to the best of m}^ power, shall I obey your commands." 
Then the dying king answered, — 

" Now praised be God ! for I shall die in peace, since I 
am assured, by the faith you owe to 3'our God and the 
order of knighthood, that the best and most valiant knight 
of my kingdom has promised to achieve for me that which 
I myself could never accomplish." 

Thus died Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in the fifty- 
fifth year of his age and the twenty-fourth of his reign. 
His remains were deposited in the church of Dumfermline, 
where he was enshrined under a rich marble monument 
from Paris. The censures of excommunication pro- 
nounced by the Pope having been removed some time 
before, the religious services at his burial were performed 
by many prelates and bishops. 

Many years afterwards his tomb was opened, and the 
lead in which his bod}' had been wrapped was found 
twisted into the shape of a rude crown, covered with a 



264 ROBERT BRUCE. 

rich cloth of gold, which had been thrown over it. It 
was ascertained that the breast-bone had been sawn asun- 
der in order to fulfil his request of taking out his heart ; 
but that proud form, before which the king of England 
had trembled on his throne, had crumbled into dust. 
Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, is one of the most ex- 
alted warriors to be found in those early times. The vir- 
tues of his character were formed, and acquired their 
bright polish, in the school of adversity. One of the early 
writers says of him, "If any one should undertake to 
describe his individual conflicts and personal success, those 
courageous and single-handed combats in which, by the 
favor of God and his own great strength and courage, he 
would often penetrate into the thickest of the enemy, now 
becoming the assailant and cutting down all who opposed 
him, at another time' acting on the defensive, and escap- 
ino; from inevitable death, — if anv writer shall do this, he 
will prove, if I am not mistaken, that he had no equal in 
his own time either in knightly prowess or in strength and 
vigor of body." The true greatness of Robert Bruce 
appeared in his humanity, moderation, and pity for the 
sufferings of others, which led him in the hour of victory 
to be generous to his prisoners even though he had suf- 
fered such bitter wronos at the hands of his Eno;lish foes. 
His manners were kingly and engaging, his disposition 
singularly gentle, courteous, and without selfishness. 
Yet he was high-spirited, and full of noble energy and 
enthusiasm. In person he was tall and well proportioned, 
being five feet ten inches high. His shoulders were broad, 
his chest capacious, and his limbs powerful and possess- 
ing marvellous strength. He possessed an open and 
cheerful countenance, shaded by short curled hair. His 
forehead was low, his cheek-bones strong and prominent. 



ROBERT BRUCE. 265 

with a wound on his lower jaw. Though the expression 
of his face was usually pleasing and kindly, he could as- 
sume a look of stern, kingly dignit}', which awed his ene- 
mies, and gained him the necessary respect due to his rank 
and commanding position as Scotland's king, and also her 
bravest and most valiant knight. He was one of the most 
successful military leaders of the age. Well may Scot- 
land boast of her brave Robert Bruce, the most famous of 
all her rulers, the deliverer of her enslaved people, the 
upholder of her liberty, her hero-king and most chivalrous 
knight ! 



266 FEDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

1452-1516 A.D. 
" Every monarch is subject to a mightier one." — Seneca. 

FOR many years after the great Saracen invasion in 
the eighth century, Spain was divided into various 
small states. In the fifteenth century these were so 
united as to form four, — Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and 
the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The province of 
Granada was all that remained to the Moslems of their 
once vast possessions in the peninsula. On the 10th of 
March, 1452, in the little town of Sos, Ferdinand, son of 
King John of Aragon, was born. The early Spanish his- 
torians note with care the good omens attending this 
event. The sun, which had been obscured with clouds 
during the whole day, suddenly broke forth with unwonted 
splendor. A crown was also beheld in the sky, composed 
of various brilliant colors, like those of a rainbow. All 
which appearances were interpreted by the spectators as 
an omen that the child then born would be the most illus- 
trious among men. As this event was also nearly con- 
temporary with the capture of Constantinople, it was 
afterwards regarded by the Catholic Church as a provi- 
dential provision in behalf of the religion of which Ferdi- 
nand became such a staunch supporter, as his zealous life 
might be regarded as an ample counterbalance to the loss 
of the capital of Christendom. One year before this time, 
in the palace of the king of Castile, on the 22d of April, 




FERDINAND OF ARAGON. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 267 

1451, a little princess had been born, and christened Isa- 
bella. This Spanish princess was descended, both on her 
father's and mother's side, from the famous John of 
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 

But around the cradles of these two ro3'al babies many 
contentions arose, which we cannot stop to note. When 
Isabella was four 3ears of age, her father died, and her 
half-brother Henry became king of Castile ; and, as she 
had still another brother, Alfonso, there did not seem to 
be much probability that she would succeed to the throne. 
She retired with her mother to the small town of Arevalo, 
where she was educated with care, and instructed in les- 
sons of practical piety, until she reached her fourteenth 
year. 

Meanwhile, the little Prince Ferdinand, in Aragon, was 
surrounded with constant contentious between his father, 
king of Aragon, and his half-brother Carlos. Joan, the 
mother of Ferdinand, was the second wife of King John. 
She was a proud, ambitious woman, much younger than 
her husband, and was of the blood royal of Castile, being 
the daughter of Don Frederic Henriquez, admiral of that 
kingdom. She liated her step-sou Carlos, who was heir 
to tlie throne, as she regarded him as an obstacle to the 
advancement of her own child, Ferdinand. We cannot 
stop to note all the family broils occasioned b}^ Joan's 
jealousy. Prince Carlos seems to have been a youth of 
many attractions of mind and body, and was the idol of 
the people. So, when King John, influenced by his wife 
Joan, succeeded in having Carlos arrested, and placed in 
strict confinement, the entire kingdom was thrown into 
excitement. The people sprang to arms, determined to 
release the prince ; and they were so threatening that 
King John fled with his wife to Saragossa. The insur- 



268 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

rection now spread throughout Aragou, Valencia, and 
Navarre, and even into King John's possessions in Sar- 
dinia and Sicil}^ At length, the frightened king saw the 
necessity of releasing his prisoner. Prince Carlos was 
received by the people with wild enthusiasm ; and the 
king could only make peace with his subjects by a public 
acknowledgment of Carlos as his rightful heir and suc- 
cessor. But Carlos did not long survive this triumph. 
He fell sick of a fever, and died in 1461. Some histo- 
rians hint that the prince was poisoned, to make way for 
the youthful Ferdinand, now ten years of age, and who 
was immediatel}' declared heir to the throne. The queen- 
mother then took Ferdinand to Catalonia, to receive the 
homage of that province ; but the Catalonian nobles, who 
were exasperated against the king on account of his treat- 
ment of Carlos, displayed so much hostility that the young 
prince and his mother were obliged to take refuge in the 
fortress of Gerona. Here they were at last relieved by 
Kino; John. But the Catalans then seceded from the 
authority of the king of Aragon, and they presented the 
crown to the duke of Lorraine, who marched with an 
army of eight thousand men against the old king of Ara- 
gon, whose treasury was empty, and who had become 
totally blind. In this emergency, the mother of Ferdi- 
nand, who was a brave woman, placed herself at the head 
of such forces as she could collect ; and, with her young 
son Ferdinand riding by her side, she heroically marched 
against the enemies of her husband, and attacked the 
duke of Lorraine with such impetuosity that she drove 
him in confusion from Gerona. In this encounter, young- 
Ferdinand came near being taken captive. 

Meanwhile, the Princess Isabella was nearl}' sacrificed 
to the ambition of her half-brother, who was king of Cas- 




ISABELLA OF CASTILE. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN 269 

tile. The beautiful priucess, who had now been brought 
from her retirement in Arevalo to her brother's court, had 
many suitors for her hand. Her half-brother, King Henry, 
promised his sister in marriage to a rich but wicked old 
nobleman ; and great preparations were made for the 
wedding. The anguish of the poor Princess Isabella was 
so great that she shut herself up in her apartment, pray- 
ing to God, with groans and tears, that He would deliver 
her from this impending doom. Still, the wedding prepa- 
rations went on. Meanwhile, the wicked old nobleman 
set out from his palace to claim his youthful and beautiful 
bride. But God had heard the prayers of the afflicted 
princess ; and, as the aged bridegroom reached a small 
village, at the end of the first da^^'s travel, he was sud- 
denly seized with an attack of quinsy, which terminated 
his life. 

The nobles of Castile now entreated Isabella to allow 
herself to be proclaimed Queen of Castile, in opposition to 
her brother, whom they all hated. Her other brother, 
Alfonso, who would have been heir, had previously died. 
But Isabella was too noble to seek such revenge upon her 
cruel brother ; but the nobles forced the king to declare 
her his successor to the throne, and to promise that she 
should not be forced to marr}' against her will. 

The king of Portugal now desired to secure Isabella 
for his bride ; and her brother threatened to imprison her 
unless she would yield. As overtures had been made by 
the 3'oung and handsome Prince Ferdinand of Aragon for 
the hand of the fair Isabella, and as her heart was also 
inclined towards this handsome prince, she determined, in 
spite of her brother, to accept the proffered hand of Fer- 
dinand. The marriage articles were signed on the 7th of 
January, 1469. Isabella was aided by the archbishop of 



270 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

Toledo, who raised a regiment of dragoons, and carried 
her in triumph to VaUadolid, where she was greeted by 
the people with the wildest enthusiasm. Meanwhile, her 
brother attempted to prevent Ferdinand from entering 
Castile to marry Isabella. As the father of Ferdinand 
was so pressed by a war with his nobles, he could not 
afford his son an armed escort sufficient to secure his 
safety. So Ferdinand resolved to go disguised as a mer- 
chant. With half a dozen companions, Ferdinand started 
upon this adventuresome expedition to secure his lovel}" 
bride, in spite of hostile foes. Amidst many perils they 
pressed on their way. One night, at an inn, they lost 
their purse, containing all their money. At length they 
were met by an escort, sent by Isabella for their protec- 
tion. The fair princess, with her little court, was at 
VaUadolid. Ferdinand, accompanied by four attendants, 
rode privately to VaUadolid, where he was received by the 
bishop of Toledo, and conducted to tl^e presence of Isa- 
bella. The young prince was very handsome, tall and 
fair, with an intelligent countenance and intellectual brow. 
He was eighteen years of age. He was well educated, 
and of temperate habits. He was graceful and courtly in 
manner, and seemed a fitting mate for the beautiful prin- 
cess of nineteen, of whom a contemporary writer says, 
" She was the handsomest lady whom I ever beheld, and 
the most gracious in her manners." 

Isabella was highly educated for those times, and spoke 
the Castilian language with grace and purity. After a 
brief lover's interview of two hours, Ferdinand returned 
to Duenas, where he had left his companions. Prepara- 
tions were immediately made for the marriage, which was 
solemnized at the palace of one of the nobles in VaUadolid, 
on the morning of the 19th of October, 1469. Ferdinand, 




SiiaoVlA : Tiliu ALCAZAH AND CATHEDRAL. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 271 

having lost his slender purse by the way, was without 
money ; and Isabella, being a fugitive from her brother's 
court, was also without means. But the royal couple 
readily borrowed the money necessary to defray the ex- 
penses of the wedding. King Henr}- now determined to 
cast aside Isabella, and place upon the throne Joanna, the 
daughter of his second wife. This was a blow to Isabella, 
for now the court of Castile, aided by the king of France, 
were combined against her. Ferdinand and Isabella held 
their little court at Duenas, in humble style. In 1474, 
the brother of Isabella, Henry IV., king of Castile, died, 
and she was proclaimed queen. Isabella was at that time 
in Segovia. Attended by an imposing retinue, she rode 
upon a beautiful steed, whose bridle was held by two high 
officers of the crown, and she was escorted to her seat 
upon the splendid tlu'one, which had been erected in one 
of the public squares of the city. As the people gazed 
with admiration upon their beautiful queen, a herald 
cried, — 

" Castile, Castile, for the king Don Ferdinand, and 
his consort Dona Isabella, queen proprietor of these 
kingdoms ! " 

The queen took the oath of office, and then repaired to 
the cathedral, to pray at the altar. Ferdinand was at 
this time in Aragon, and when he returned he was greatly 
displeased with the document prepared by the dignitaries 
of Castile, in which Isabella alone was declared heir to 
the throne of Castile, but Ferdinand was associated with 
her in the performance of many acts of royalty. But, 
persuaded by his wife, he agreed to submit. 

Alfonso v., the king of Portugal, now invaded Castile. 
Ferdinand and Isabella raised an army and met the foe 
at Toro. The powerful bishop of Toledo, exasperated by 



272 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

the independence of opinion which Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella displayed, whom he had supposed would be pliant 
tools in his hands, joined Alfonso against them. The 
strife was too desperate to last long. There was a hand- 
to-hand fight along the entire line. At length a storm 
arose. A dark night came down upon the conflicting 
iiosts. A deluge of rain fell, and the field was flooded 
with mingled blood and water. The Portuguese were 
utterly routed. Ferdinand displayed great humanit}' to 
his prisoners, furnishing them with food, clothing, and a 
safe return to their own countr}'. 

Isabella was awaiting the issue of the battle at Tordi- 
sillas, twenty miles above on the river. When she re- 
ceived tidings of the victory, she ordered a procession to 
the Church of St. Paul, as an expression of her gratitude 
to God, and she herself walked barefoot in the garb 
of a penitent. In a few months, the entire kingdom of 
Castile acknowledged the supremacy of Ferdinand and 
Isabella. 

In 1479, the king of Aragon died, leaviug the kingdoms 
of Aragon and Navarre to his son Ferdinand. Aragon, 
Castile, and Navarre, being thus united under these two 
illustrious monarchs, the great Spanish monarchy was 
thereby founded. 

Ferdinand and Isabella now commenced the enterprise 
of conqueriug Granada, thus expelling the Moors from 
their last foothold in Spain. Malaga, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean, was one of the principal Moorish towns. 
The Moors were aware of the importance of this position, 
and had strongly fortified it. The Moors were as brave 
as the Christians, and were led by famous chieftains. 
In April, 1487, Ferdinand, at the head of fifty thousand 
men, arrived before Malaga, and commenced its seige. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 273 

There were continual ambuscades, and nightly sallies. 
One day, while Ferdinand was dining in his tent, which 
commanded a view of the field of conflict, he perceived a 
party of Christians, who had been sent to fortify an emi- 
nence, retreating in confusion, pursued b}' the Moors. 
King Ferdinand leaped upon his horse, not delaying for 
any defensive armor, rallied his men, and charged against 
the enemy. Having thrown his lance, he endeavored to 
draw his sword from its scabbard. But the sword held 
fast, the scabbard having been by some accident, indented. 
Just then several Moors surrounded him. The king would 
have been slain had not two brave cavaliers rushed to his 
rescue. The nobles remonstrated with the king for so 
risking his life, but Ferdinand uuselfishh' answered, — 

" I cannot stop to calculate chances, when my subjects 
are perilling their lives for my sake." 

After a siege of ten days, one of the outposts of Malaga 
was captured by the Spaniards, who now pressed tri- 
umphantly forward to assault the city itself. Ferdinand 
first attempted to induce the Moors to capitulate, by gen- 
erous offers, to the commander. But he loyally replied, 
" I am stationed here to defend the place to the last ex- 
tremity. The Christian king cannot offer a bribe large 
enough to induce me to betray my trust." Ferdinand 
then encompassed the city by sea and by land. Queen 
Isabella joined him, and her presence inspired the Span- 
iards with fresh courage. When she arrived with a brill- 
iant train of ladies and cavaliers, an imposing escort was 
sent to meet her, and she was conducted to the encamp- 
ment with great magnificence of parade, and many de- 
monstrations of joy. 

The assault was now renewed more fiercely than ever. 
Famine at length caused great suffering amongst the 



274 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

Moors. They bad consumed most of their ammunition, 
while the Spanish army was constantly re-enforced by 
new volunteers. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella 
maintained strict religious discipline in their camp. Nei- 
ther oaths nor gambling was allowed, and the rites of 
the Roman Catholic Church were performed with impos- 
ing ceremony. Gradually the Christians gained ground. 
They succeeded in blowing up one of the towers, thereby 
obtaining entrance into the city. The citizens of Malaga, 
suffering from pestilence and famine, had been reduced to 
living upon the flesh of horses, dogs, and cats. Every- 
where the most appalling miser}^ was seen. Manj- were 
dying in the streets. In view of their sufferings, Ilamet 
Zeli, the Moorish commander, gave the citizens permission 
to make the best terms they could with their conqueror. 
Ferdinand would listen to nothing, however, but uncon- 
ditional surrender. At length the citizens sent a deputa- 
tion to Ferdinand, declaring that they were willing to 
resign to him the city, the fortifications, and all the ])rop- 
erty, if he would spare their lives, and give them their 
freedom. " If these terms are refused," they added, 
" we will take the six hundred Christian captives, who are 
in our hands, and hang them like dogs on the battlements. 
We will then enclose our old men, women, and children 
in the fortress, set fire to the town, and sell our lives as 
dearl}' as possible, in the attempt to cut our way through 
our enemies. Thus if you gain a victory, it shall be such 
a one as will make the name of Malaga ring throughout 
the world, to ages yet unborn." 

In answer, Ferdinand replied, " If a single hair of a 
Christian's head is harmed, I will put to the sword every 
man, woman, and child in the cit^^" 

The citizens in hopeless despair, cast themselves upon 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 275 

the mercy of Ferdinand, unconditionally surrenderino- the 
city. 

On the 18th day of August, 1487, the Spanish army, 
headed by Ferdinand and Isabella, with great military and 
ecclesiastical pomp, entered the city, and repaired to the 
cathedral, where the Te Deum was for the first time per- 
formed within its walls. The Christian captives were 
liberated from the Moorish dungeons. The^^ presented 
a dreadful spectacle, which drew tears from all eyes. 
This band of sufferers, many of whom had languished in 
dark cells for fifteen years, were brought forth, haggard, 
emaciated, and heavily manacled with chains. Beino; 
freed from their fetters, Ferdinand and Isabella addressed 
to them kind words of sympathy, and dismissed them with 
rich gifts. 

The heroic Moorish chieftain, who had so gallantly 
defended the city, was brought loaded with chains before 
his conqueror. Upon being questioned why he had so 
long persisted, he replied, ''I was commissioned to de- 
fend the place to the last extremity. Had I been properh* 
supported, I would have died sooner than have surren- 
dered." 

Then came the doom of the Moors. The entire popu- 
lation of the city, amounting to about twent}^ thousand, 
were condemned to slavery. Men, women, and children 
were alike sentenced by the Christians. One-third were 
sent to Africa in exchange for Christians imprisoned 
there. Another portion were sold to the highest bidder, 
to procure money to defray the expenses of the war. The 
Pope at Rome received one hundred Moorish soldiers. 
The Moorish girls were renowned for their great beauty ; 
fifty of the most beautiful of these were sent by Isabella 
as a gift to the Queen of Naples, and thirty to the Queen 



276 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

of Portugal. All the propert}' of the victims was seized 
by the crown. Cruel as this doom appears to us, it was 
regarded at that time as mild and humane, though now 
one shudders at such unchristian barbarity. But in jus- 
tice, the excuse must be made for Ferdinand and Isabella, 
that they supposed that thereby the Moslem Moors would 
be more likely to become converts to the Christian religion, 
even in slavery. It is said that Isabella was urged by the 
clergy to put all the captured Moors to death, as a warn- 
ino- to others. Tlie city of Malaga was now re-inhabited 
by the Spaniards. 

In the next year, Ferdinand, with a force of twenty 
thousand men, marched against Granada, the capital of 
the Moorish kingdom. The Christians were driven back 
in confusion into their own territory. The 3'ear following, 
King Ferdinand collected an army of ninety-five thousand 
men. The cavalry was composed of the highest nobilit}'' 
of the realm. The Christians advanced upon Baza. The 
Moors sallied forth from the cit}' to meet their foes ; a 
fierce battle lasted for twelve hours, when the Moors wei"e 
forced to retreat within the city walls. The conflict had 
been so severe, however, that the Spanish generals coun- 
selled an abandonment of the siege. Ferdinand, relying 
upon the wisdom and great mental endowments of his 
wife, sent dispatches to Jaen, where Isabella then was, 
asking her advice. Her reply was so encouraging that 
the siege was renewed. The summer and winter passed 
away ; the Christians suffered much during the floods of 
rain which inundated their camp. The energetic queen, 
however, came to their rescue, and sent six thousand 
pioneers to repair the roads ; and she even i)awned the 
crown jewels and her own ornaments, to raise money to 
furnish her husband's forces with supplies. The Moorish 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 211 

women within the city displayed heroism equal to that of 
the Christian queen. At length, as the Spanish troops 
began to despond, Ferdinand sent for his brave wife to 
come to the camp, that her presence might inspire them 
with fresh courage. An historian thus describes the 
coming of the queen : — 

" On the 7th of November, the queen, accompanied by 
her daughter Isabella, several ladies of honor, a choir of 
beautiful maidens, and a brilliant escort, entered the camp 
of Ferdinand. The inhabitants of Baza crowded their 
walls and towers to gaze upon the glittering pageant as it 
wound its way through the defiles of the mountains and 
emerged upon the plain, with gold-embroidered banners 
. and strains of martial music. The Spanish cavaliers 
sallied forth in a body from their camp to receive their 
beloved queen and to greet her with an enthusiastic recep- 
tion. The presence of this extraordinary woman, in whose 
character there was combined with feminine grace so much 
of manly self-reliance and energy, not only reanimated the 
drooping spirits of the besiegers, but convinced the 
besieged that the vSpanish arm}' would never withdraw 
until the place was surrendered. Though there was no 
want of food for the beleagured Moors, their ammunition 
was nearly expended, and the garrison was greatly re- 
duced by sickness, wounds, and death." 

Soon after the arrival of Isabella, the Moorish garrison 
offered to capitulate. Ferdinand was so anxious to secure 
the place, that he agreed to allow the army to march out 
with the honors of war, and the citizens to retire with 
their propert}^ at their pleasure. The fall of Baza secured 
the surrender of many other important strongholds of the 
Moslems. Granada, the capital of the Moorish kingdom, 
was still in the possession of the Moors. Ferdinand, in 



278 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

1491, having raised another army, encamped within six 
miles of this city. Abdallah, the king of the Spanish 
Moors, was in personal command at Granada. The city 
possessed a population of two hundred thousand people. 

The situation of Granada was exceedingly picturesque. 
A wild, rugged mountain range, whose summits were 
crowned with snow, protected the city upon the south. 
On the north was a beautiful plain, blooming with flowers, 
and beyond, groves and vinej'ards reached for thirty 
leagues. But upon this lovely spot occurred scenes of 
blended heroism and revolting carnage, which have made 
the fall of Granada famous for all time. 

Sometimes a company of Moors, clad in armor, and 
mounted upon their fiery Arabian chargers, would ride 
forth from the gates, while bugle-blasts rang shrill upon 
the air, and challenge an equal number of Christian 
knights to combat. Promptly the defiance was met. All 
the citizens of Granada crowded the house-tops, battle- 
ments, and towers of the cit}', to watch the exciting con- 
flict. Both armies rested upon their arms, breathlessly 
awaiting the issue. Again, some brave Christian knight 
would ride forth alone and challenge a Moorish cavalier 
to combat. The ladies of the two hostile courts cheered 
their respective champion with their fair presence and 
encouraging smiles ; and never did knight or cavalier fight 
more valiantly to win the prize of victory. The memory 
of these brilliant but deadly tourneys still inspires the 
songs of the Castilians. Spanish ballads glow with 
thrilling descriptions of these knightly tourneys ; and the 
prowess of Moslem, as well as Christian warriors, sheds 
undying glory over the conquest of Granada. 

Queen Isabella took an active part in all the military 
operations of the Spanish army. She often appeared upon 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 279 

the field, encased in full armor, mounted upon a splendid 
steed ; and her presence always inspired her troops to 
fresh deeds of valor. Isabella occupied in the camp 
a pavilion, richly draped with silken hangings. One 
night, a gust of wind blew the fringes of one of the cur- 
tains into the flame of a lamp, and soon the entire pavilion 
was in a blaze. The conflagration spread to other tents, 
and it was only with great difficulty that the entire camp 
was preserved from destruction. Tlie queen and her 
children were in o-reat danoer of beino- destroved. In 
consequence of this accident, Ferdinand, to prevent a like 
occurrence, ordered a city of substantial houses to be built 
upon the spot occupied by his army. In three months, 
a large and statel}' city arose. The soldiers wished to 
call it Isabella, in honor of their idolized queen, but she 
named it Santa Fe, in recognition of her faith in Provi- 
dence. The city still stands. 

The Moors were now convinced that their Spanisli foes 
were determined to remain until the Crescent should give 
place to the Cross. The citizens of Granada were suffer- 
ing from famine. Abdallah, therefore, surrendered 
Granada to the Christians on the second day of January, 
1492. 

This last great act in one of the sublimest of historical 
dramas — the invasion of Spain by the Moors — was per- 
formed with the most imposing martial and religious rites. 
The Alhambra was first taken possession of by veteran 
Christian troops, including the body-guard of the king. 
Ferdinand, surrounded by a very brilliant cortege glitter- 
ing in polished armor, took his station near an Arabian 
mosque, now called the hermitage of St. Sebastian. At 
a short distance in the rear the queen Isabella took her 
position, accompanied by a no less splendid retinue, her 



280 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

high-born warriors proudly displajdng the armorial bear- 
ings of their families. The immense column of the Chris- 
tian army commenced its march up the Hill of Martyrs 
into the city. Abdallah, accompanied by fifty cavaliers, 
passed them, descending the hill to make the surrender 
of himself to P'erdinand. The heart-broken Moor threw 
himself from his horse, and would have seized the hand 
of Ferdinand to kiss it in token of homage, but the Chris- 
tian king magnanimously spared him the humiliation, and 
threw his arms around the deposed monarch in a respect- 
ful and affectionate embrace. Abdallah then presented 
the keys of the Alhambra to the conqueror, saying, — 

"They are thine, O king, since Allah so decrees it. 
Use thy success with clemency and moderation- " 

He then, not waiting for the words of consolation which 
the king was about to utter, rode on to offer the same acts 
of submission and homage to Queen Isabella. In the 
mean time the Castilian army, winding slowly up the hill 
and around the walls, entered the city by the gate of Los 
Molinos. The large silver cross which Ferdinand had 
ever borne with him in his crusade against the Moors was 
now elevated upon the Alhambra, while the banners of 
the conqueror were proudly unfurled from its towers. 
'- ' It was the signal for the whole army to fall upon its 
knees in recognition of that providence which had granted 
them so great a victory. The solemn strains of the Te 
Deum^ performed b}^ the choir of the ro^^al chapel, then 
swelled majestically over the prostrate host. The Span- 
ish grandees now gathered around Isabella, and kneeling, 
kissed her hand, in recognition of her sovereignty as queen 
of Granada." 

Abdallah, however, did not remain as a sad witness of 
these scenes. With a small band he took his way to the 




PATIO JJE LUS LEUNEb (COURT OF LIONS), ALHAMBRA, 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN 281 

mountains. From one of the rocky eminences he sorrow- 
fully gazed upon the beautiful realms over which his 
ancestors had reigned for more than seven hundred 3'ears. 
AYith eyes filled with tears he exclaimed, ''Alas! when 
were woes ever equal to mine ! " 

Whereupon his mother cruelly replied, " You do well to 
weep as a woman for what you could not defend like a 
man ! " 

Thus " The Last Sigh of the Moor," and the cruel yet 
Spartan-like heroism of the Moorish queen-mother, have 
passed into the romantic annals of history. 

While Ferdinand and Isabella were at Santa Fe, Colum- 
bus arrived at their camp. We have not space to give 
here a history of Christopher Columbus. We can but 
note a few important incidents. The Atlantic Ocean was 
then unexplored. Columbus, who was employed in the 
construction of maps and charts, became convinced that 
countries existed upon the other side of the globe. He 
was laughed at as an enthusiast, and when he declared 
that the world was round, one of the sages of the fifteenth 
century replied, " Can any one be so foolish as to believe 
that the world is round, and that there are people on the 
side opposite to ours who walk with their heels upward 
and their heads hanging down, like flies clinging to the 
ceiling ? that there is a part of the world where trees grow 
with their branches hanoino- downwards, and where it 
rains, hails, and snows upwards?" 

The doctrine of Columbus was not only regarded as 
absurd, but it was thought to be heretical. Columbus, 
fully convinced of the truth of his ideas, appealed first to 
the kino- of Portugal for means to fit out a fleet to start 
out on a voyage of discovery. Meeting with refusal, he 
visited the Spanish court in 1487. At this time Ferdi- 



282 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

nancl and Isabella were with the army, encamped before 
Malaga. The war with the Moors continuing, the Span- 
ish sovereigns declared that they could give the matter no 
attention until the conclusion of the war. Disheartened, 
Columbus was about to apply to the king of France, when 
the prior of the convent of La Rabida, at Palos, who 
firmly believed in the scheme of Columbus, and who had 
formerly been confessor to Isabella, wrote to the queen, 
urging that Spain might not lose so great an opportunity. 
Isabella was so much impressed by the letter of the wor- 
thy prior that she immediately requested that Columbus 
should come to Santa Fe, where she was then residing, as 
the Spanish army were still besieging Granada. Colum- 
bus arrived there just as the Moorish banner was torn 
down, and the flag of Spain was unfurled upon the towers 
of the Alhambra. In the midst of these rejoicings Co- 
lumbus presented his plans. "I wish," said he, "for a 
few ships and a few sailors to traverse between two and 
three thousand miles of the ocean, thus to point out a new 
and short route to India, and reveal new nations, majes- 
tic in wealth and power. These realms are peopled by 
immortal beings, for whom Christ has died. It is my mis- 
sion to search them out, and to carry to them the Gospel 
of salvation. Wealth will also flow in from this discov- 
er}'. With this wealth we can raise armies, and rescue 
the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the hands of the 
infidels. I ask only in return that I may be appointed 
viceroy over the realms I discover, and that I shall re- 
ceive one-tenth of the profits which may accrue." 

The Spanish courtiers were astonished at what they 
deemed audacious demands, and persuaded the queen to 
refuse. Whereupon, Columbus sadly saddled his mule to 
retrace his steps, and to offer his services to the king of 




COLUMBUS. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 283 

France. Isabella was troubled, as she thought over these 
offers and requests of Columbus, and she expressed to 
Ferdinand her perplexities. He replied, " The royal 
finances are exhausted by the war. We have no money 
in the treasury for such an enterprise." The queen then 
enthusiastically exclaimed, — 

" I will undertake the enterprise for my own crown of 
Castile ; and I will pledge my private jewels to raise the 
necessar}^ funds." 

Thus the discovery of a continent hung upon the vanity, 
or heroism, of a woman ! But the character of Isabella 
was equal to the emergency. The matter was quickly 
settled. A courier was sent to overtake the disappointed 
Columbus, who was pursuing his weary way through the 
sand, overwhelmed with gloom. For eighteen years he 
had been in vain endeavoring to carr}^ out his cherished 
plans. Jo3'fully he returned to Santa F^, where the queen 
received him with great kindness, and assented to his 
demands. Columbus succeeded in obtaining three small 
vessels, — two furnished by the Spanish government, and 
one by Martin Alonzo Pinzon, a wealthy Spaniard. The 
total number who joined the expedition was one hundred 
and fift}'. 

The enterprise was deemed so hazardous that it was 
with great difficulty that a crew could be obtained. This 
was in the fifteenth century. In view of the marvellous 
progress in knowledge, discover}-, invention, and an 
enlightened Christianity, in the past four hundred years, 
in comparison with the ignorance and superstitions of pre- 
ceding epochs, an}' student of history will be led most 
emphatically to exclaim, Surely the world was never so 
advanced in knowledge, true civilization, and pure religion 
as to-day ! With all the wickedness at the present time, 



284 FERDINAND F. OF SPAIN. 

the study of history reveals the fact, that the world was 
never so good, pure, and Christian as now. 

On the 3d of August, 1492, the small squadron unfurled 
its sails for the momentous voyage. At the close of a 
week they arrived at the Canary Islands, which were on 
the frontiers of the known Avorld. On the 6th of Septem- 
ber, the}' again set sail. 

Day after day passed ; but no land came in sight. 
Sixty-seven days had now passed since the Highlands of 
vSpain had disappeared from their view. They had met 
with indications which made them hope that land was 
near. A branch of a shrub, with leaves and berries upon 
it, had been picked up ; and a small piece of wood, curi- 
ously carved, had been found drifting upon the water. It 
was the 11th of October. As the sun went down, and the 
stars appeared, Columbus took his stand upon the poop of 
his vessel. About ten o'clock, he was startled by the 
gleam of what seemed to be a torch far in the distance. 
For a moment it blazed, then disappeared. Was it a 
meteor, or a light from the land? Not an eye was closed 
on the ships that night. At two o'clock in the morning, 
a sailor at the mast-head shouted, " Land, land, laud! " 
The day dawned ; and a glimpse of paradise seemed to 
have been unveiled before their enraptured gaze. A 
beautiful island was spread out, luxuriously green, and 
adorned with every varietj' of tropical vegetation. The 
boats were lowered, and manned. The banner of Spain, 
emblazoned with the cross, floated from every prow. 
Columbus, richly attired in a scarlet dress, entered his 
boat, and was rowed towards the shore, where multitudes 
of the natives stood, gazing, spell-bound, upon the strange 
sight. Columbus leaped upon the shore, and, falling 
upon his knees, gave thanks to God. With imposing 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 285 

ceremony, the Imnuer of Spain was planted upon the soil ; 
and the island was called San Salvador, in recognition of 
the protecting care of Providence. We have not space 
to note the other discoveries of Columbus upon this voy- 
age. Continuing his explorations in that part of the 
countr\', he discovered the islands of Exuma, Yuma, and 
Cuba. Of Cuba, Columbus wrote, " It is the most beau- 
tiful island that eyes ever beheld." During a short tour 
up one of the picturesque streams of Cuba, Columbus met 
with a bulbous I'oot, about as large as an apple, which the 
natives used as food, roasting it in the ashes. The}' 
called it batatas. Columbus and his men were hunting 
for gold ; but this discovery of the indispensable potato 
has proved a much riclier prize to mankind. Here, also, 
he saw the natives rolling up in their hands dried leaves 
of a certain plant, which they lighted and smoked. These 
leaves they called tobacco. This discovery has proved a 
curse, rather than a blessing, to the world. 

After discovering the islands of the Nativity and 
Hayti, or Saint Domingo, Columbus determined to return 
to Spain, to secure a more efficient fleet. The return voy- 
age was extremely tempestuous. During the gloomy 
hours of storm and danger, fearing that they should never 
see land again, Columbus wrote an account of his discov- 
eries upon parchment, wrapped it in waxed cloth, and, 
enclosing it in a water-tight cask, set it adrift. A copy, 
similarly prepared, was kept upon the ship. On the 15tli 
of March, not quite seven months and a half from the 
time of his departure, Columbus, with his little crew, 
entered the harbor of Palos. Ferdinand aud Isabella 
were at Barcelona. They immediatel}' wrote to Colum- 
bus, requesting him to repair to their court. His journey 
thither was a triumphal march. Ferdinand and Isabella 



286 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

were seated beneath a silken canopy, to receive him with 
the most imposing ceremonies of state. As a remarkable 
act of condescension, both Ferdinand and Isabella rose, 
upon the approach of Columbus, and offered him their 
hands to kiss. The Indians and other trophies from the 
New World which he had brought back with him, occa- 
sioned the greatest surprise. Then Columbus narrated 
to the Spanish sovereigns the story of his voyage. But 
we are obliged to give an account of the shame, as well 
as glory, of the Spanish court. Ferdinand and Isabella 
were rioid Catholics ; so much so, that Ferdinand is called 
in history "Ferdinand the Catholic," and Isabella received 
also the same title. The Inquisition, which had existed 
somewhat mildly before, was re-established by them. We 
cannot give the details of those persecutions here, which 
we narrate more fully when the Inquisition appears with 
greater cruelty and ferocity in the life of Philip II. 
During the reign of Ferdinand, the persecution fell mostly 
upon the Jews. Just as the Spanish sovereigns were 
about entering into engagements with Columbus to send 
him in search of a new world, that Christianity might be 
carried to the heathens there, the unchristian and cruel 
edict was issued for the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. 
We have not space to describe the heart-rending sufferings 
of this persecuted people. 

While at Barcelona, in 1492, Ferdinand narrowly es- 
caped being killed by an assassin. King Ferdinand had 
not much intellectual culture ; and Isabella was far supe- 
rior to her husband in literary attainments. But Ferdi- 
nand was a capable man in the military and practical 
affairs of his kingdom. The children of Ferdinand and 
Isabella received unusual education for those times, and 
acquired X'are attainments. Prince John, heir to their 











PRISON OF THE INQUISITION AT BARCELONA. 



FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 287 

throne, was reared with the greatest care. But just after 
the marriage of the young prince to Princess Margaret, 
daughter of the Emperor Maximilian of Austria, which 
was celebrated with great magnificence. Prince John was 
stricken with a fever, and died. Thus perished their only 
son. Their eldest daughter, Isabella, who had married 
the king of Portugal, died soon after the death of her 
brother. Prince John. This daughter left a babe, who 
thus became heir to Portugal, Aragon, and Castile ; but 
ere a year had passed the infant also sank into the grave. 
Their daughter Joanna was married to the archduke 
Philip, son and heir of Maximilian. This unhappy prin- 
cess was the mother of Charles V. of Spain. But her life 
was clouded with gloom, occasioned by her husband's 
neglect, which at last caused her insanity. The youngest 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, Catharine of Aragon, 
afterwards had the misfortune to many the infamous 
Henry VIII. of England. Thus, the last days of these 
illustrious sovereigns were overshadowed with heart-rend- 
ing sorrows. We can barel}^ note the subsequent discov- 
eries of Columbus. Before his second voyage, while at 
Barcelona, he was invited by the grand cardinal of Spain 
to dine with him. An envious guest inquired of Colum- 
bus if he thought that there was no man in Spain capable 
of discovering the Indies, if he had not made the discov- 
ery. Columbus, without replying to the question, took 
an Qgg from the table, and asked if there was any one who 
could make it stand on one end. They all tried, but 
failed. Whereupon Columbus, by a slight blow, crushed 
the end of the egg, and left it standing before them, 
saying, " You see how easy it is to do a thing after some 
one has shown you how." 

In his second voyage he discovered the island of 



288 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

Jamaica and several other islands. Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella received him with kindness upon his return ; but two 
vears passed before he could obtain another squadron. 
It was during this third voyage that complaints reached 
Isabella that Columbus was enslaving the inhabitants of 
Hayti. An officer named Bobadilla was sent to Hayti to 
investigate the matter. He was unscrupulous and envi- 
ous ; and, falsely using his official authority, he ordered 
Columbus to be sent back to Spain in chains. These out- 
rages, inflicted upon a man so illustrious, roused indigna- 
tion throughout the world. Ferdinand and Isabella were 
shocked and alarmed upon hearing of this outrageous 
treatment, and sent in the greatest haste to release him 
from his fetters, and to express their sympathy and regret 
for the indignities he had sufTered. Some months after, 
Columbus started upon his fourth and last voyage. After 
encountering storms and perils, Columbus reached the 
continent at what is now called Central America, near 
Yucatan. Notwithstanding the importance of having at 
last touched the American continent, this voyage was a 
series of disappointments and disasters. He was detained 
for a year on the island of Jamaica, on account of the 
loss of his ships, which were wrecked in the storms. At 
leno-th, two vessels arrived at the island, and Columbus 
embarked for his return to Spain. When he at last 
reached that country, he was broken down by old age, 
sickness, and mental suffering. Poverty stnred him in 
the face. Isabella was upon her death-bed ; and Ferdi- 
nand was heartless, and would not offer liim any relief. 
After all his achievements in behalf of mankind, Colum- 
bus thus sadly writes to his son: " I live by borrowing. 
Little have I profited by twenty years of service, with 
such toils and perils, since at present I do not own a roof 




TOMB OF FERDINAND AND ISABELLA IN THE CATHEDRAL 
OF GRANADA. 



FERDIXAND V. OF SPAIW. 289 

in Spain. If I desire to eat or sleep, I have no resort but 
an inn, and for the most times have not wherewithal to 
pay my bill." In the midst of such sorrow and poverty, 
the heroic Columbus passed his last days on earth. He, 
was buried in the Convent of St. Francisco, at Seville. 
Thirty years afterwards, his remains were removed to St. 
Domingo, on the island of Hayti. Upon the cession of 
the island to the French, in 1795, they were transferred 
by the Spanish* authorities to the Cathedral of Havana, in 
Cuba. 

Queen Isabella was now broken in health, from her 
many domestic sorrows. She died in November, 1504. 
The last years of Ferdinand afford a sad contrast to his 
early life and brilliant manhood. As the death of Queen 
Isabella took from Ferdinand the crown of Castile, Philip, 
the husband of the poor crazy Joanna, daughter of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella, seized upon the throne of Castile. A 
bitter family quarrel ensued. In order to secure the help 
of France, Ferdinand, though it was only eleven months 
after the death of his deeply loved wife, was married to 
the princess Germaine, a gay and frivolous girl of eigh- 
teen, daughter of one of the sisters of Louis XII. 

" It seemed hard," says one writer, "that these nuptials 
should take place so soon, and that, too, in Isabella's own 
kingdom of Castile, where she had lived without peer, and 
where her ashes are still held in as much veneration as 
she enjoyed while living." The marriage ceremony took 
place at Duenas, where, thirt3'-six years before, he had 
pledged his faith to Isabella. In 1513 the health of Fer- 
dinand began to fail. Dropsy and partial paralysis made 
his life a torment. Hoping to gain relief, he travelled 
southward ; but, having reached the small village of Mad- 
rigalejo, he was unable to proceed farther. On the 22d 



290 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 

of January, 151 G, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 
Ferdinand breathed his last. He died in a small room 
in an obscure village. ' ' In so wretclied a tenement did 
the lord of so man}- lands close his eyes upon the world." 
Thus ended the lives of Ferdinand and Isabella, shrouded 
with gloom and disappointment. 

" A crown ! What is it ? 
It is to bear the miseries of a people, • 
To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents, 
And sink beneath a load of splendid care." 



PHILIP 11. OF SPAIN. 291 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 

1527-1598 A.D. 

" Princes who would their people should do well, 
Must at themselves begin, as at the head ; 
For men, by their example, pattern out 
Their imitations and regard of laws : 
A virtuous court a world to virtue draws." — Ben Jonson. 

CHARLES V. of Spain, the father of Philip II., was 
the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. Throuoh 
liis father he inherited the Netherlands and part of Bur- 
gundy, and at the age of nineteen became emperor of 
German3\ He had received the throne of Spain when 
sixteen years of age. When his son Philip had attained 
sufficient age to assume the throne, Charles V. abdicated 
in his favor, and retired to a convent, where he died in 
1558 in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Philip II., his 
son, was born at Valladolid in 1527. His mother, Isa- 
bella, was the daughter of Emanuel, king of Portugal. 
Philip was but twelve years old at the time of his mother's 
death. In 1543 Philip married Mary, daughter of the 
king of Portugal. Both bride and bridegroom were 
eighteen years of age. Mary died in a short time, leav- 
ing an infant son named Don Carlos. Catharine of Ara- 
iion, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
married Kinoj Henry VIII. of Enoland. Their dauohter 
Mary became the second wife of King Philip II. of Spain. 
She was eleven years older than Philip, and was unattrac- 
tive in person and a bigot in religion. Her cruelty in 



292 PHTLir II. OF SPAIN. 

persecuting those whom she regarded a,s heretics has 
given her in history the name of " Bloody Mary." 

The marriage contract was signed before either of them 
had seen each other. As tlie son of an emperor, Philip 
set out in royal state to obtain his bride. The marriage 
ceremony was performed in the cathedral at Winchester. 
Philip was dressed in a suit of white satin, the gift of 
Mary. It was richly decorated with golden embroidery, 
and encrusted with precious stones. Mary's wedding 
dress was also white satin embroidered with gold. It 
was thickly studded and fringed with costly jewels. 

As Mary was at this time queen of England, her mar- 
riage was celebrated with the greatest magnificence. The 
pompous rites of the wedding ceremony occupied four 
hours, during which time Philip and Mar}' were seated 
upon a throne draped with a ro3'al canopy. The vast 
edifice was thronged with the nobility of England, Flan- 
ders, and Spain. After a few days, devoted to public 
festivities in Winchester, Philip and Mary went to Lon- 
don, and were received by the people and court with 
great demonstrations of rejoicing. Her father. King 
Henry VIII., had quarrelled with the Pope at Rome, but 
Mary and Philip were zealous Catholics, and desired to 
re-establish the relations of the English Church with 
Rome. Parliament met at Whitehall. Mar}', the queen 
of England, sat with Philip under a canopy. By her side 
sat the Pope's legate. A petition was presented by the 
chancellor of the realm, praying for reconciliation with 
the Papal See. The whole assembly knelt before the 
Pope's legate, who pronounced upon them absolution and 
a benediction. Then began the fires of persecution. 
Many who would not consent to become Catholics were 
burned at the stake. 




QUEEN MARY ILIGIITING HER TROTH TO PHILIP. 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIX. 293 

Philip, who had now wearied of his elderly and unat- 
tractive wife, and also of being regarded as only the 
husband of the queen, was rejoiced at the summons of his 
father, Charles V., who desired him to return to Spain to 
receive the kingdom, that Charles might retire into con- 
vent life. By the abdication of Charles V., Philip 11. 
became one of the most powerful monarchs in the world. 
He was king of united Spain ; he was also king of Naples 
and Sicily, and duke of Milan ; he was sovereign of the 
Low Countries ; and as husband of the queen of England, 
who was devotedly attached to him, he had great influence 
in the affairs of that nation. The Cape Verde Islands 
and the Canaries were under his swa3^ A large portion 
of the Mediterranean coast in Africa was under his domin- 
ion ; also the Philippine and Spice Islands, in Asia. 
He inherited those islands wliich Columbus had conferred 
upon Spain in the West Indies, and also the vast realms 
of Mexico and Peru. 

Such was the immense power now placed in the hands 
of this young prince not ^et thirty years of age. Philip 
II. esta])lished his court at Madrid, and from his palace 
there sent forth his edicts over his wide domains. In 
1558 Queen Mary of England died, being succeeded by 
her half-sister Elizabeth. 

Philip's onlj' regret for his wife was, no doubt, the loss 
of his hold upon the English crown. Before a year had 
elapsed he was married to the daughter of the king of 
France. This young princess, Elizabeth, — called in Spain, 
Isabella, — was only fourteen years of age, and had been 
previously betrothed to the son of Philip, Don Carlos, 
who was of the same age. 

The death of this young prince a few years afterwards, 
under very suspicious circumstances, caused many to 



294 PHILIP 11. OF SPAIX. 

think that he had been poisoned by the command of his 
father, wlio had imprisoned the prince at the time. Don 
Carlos and his father had frequent quarrels, and at last 
Carlos was said to have confessed to a priest that he de- 
sired to kill his father, and he asked absolution, which tha 
priest refused to grant. The king was informed of all 
this. The young prince was thereupon imprisoned, with 
a strong guard to watch him, and he was reported to be 
mad. In the course of a few months Don Carlos died. 

Two stories regarding that event were told. Some his- 
torians consider Philip innocent of any attempt upon the 
life of his son, but others state that the physician of the 
prince was informed that it was ver\' desirable that the 
death of Carlos should appear to result from natural 
causes ; and that medicine was administered to the unsus- 
pecting patient in such doses as slowly' to accomplish the 
desired end. Philip II. was a fanatic in religion, and the 
terrible persecution of the Protestants during his reign has 
filled the world with horror, as the shocking stories have 
been told. 

Philip had not forgotten his father's command to pun- 
ish heretics with the utmost rigor. The Reformation had 
been silently and rapidly advancing in Spain. Now the 
terrible persecutions of the Inquisition were turned against 
this heroic little band of fearless Christians by those pro- 
fessing to worship the same merciful God, and to be 
followers of the same loving and sinless Christ. How 
such awful crimes could have been perpetrated in the 
sacred name of religion seems at the present day incom- 
prehensible, and we shudder at the recital of such savage 
barbarity, more especially when committed by the enlight- 
ened and civilized nations of the world less than four 
centuries ago. 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 205 

The bigoted Philip issued mi edict '-' thtit all who 
bought, sold, or read prohibited works were to be burned 
alive." Every person suspected of heresy was arrested 
and thrown into prison. In Seville alone, eight hundred 
were arrested in one day. The accused were then draa:2:ed 
from their dungeons and subjected to the horrors of the 
most merciless tortures to induce them to give np their 
Protestant faith ; and these shocking deeds were per- 
formed in the name of religion. The awful details of 
those barbarous crimes are too horrible to relate. What 
must the reality have been to the poor victims of this in- 
human persecution ! 

The first act of burning, under the decrees of the Pope, 
Philip II., and the Spanish inquisitor-general, Valdes, 
took place in May, 1559, at Valladolid. This terrible 
ceremony was called auto de /e, or act of faith ; and so 
common did they at length become, that Catholics would 
engage to meet each other at the '•'•auto de /e','' ^s in 
modern times appointments are made to meet at the 
theatre, opera, or other place of public gathering. One 
of the historians thus describes the second auto de fe in 
Valladolid, in October, 1559: "The Pope wished to in- 
vest the scene with all the terrors of the Day of Judgment. 
That he might draw an immense crowd, an indulgence of 
forty days was granted to all who should be present at 
the spectacle. 

" The tragedy was enacted in the great square of the 
citj'. At one end of the square a large platform was 
erected, richly carpeted and decorated, where seats were 
arranged for the inquisitors. A royal galler}' w\as con- 
structed for the king and his court. Two hundred thou- 
sand spectators surrounded the arena. At six o'clock in 
the morning all the bells of the city began to toll the 



296 PHILIP IL OF SPAIN. 

funeral knell. A solemn procession emerged from the 
dismal fortress of the Inquisition. A body of troops led 
the van. Then came the condemned. There were two 
classes : the first consisting of those who were to be pun- 
ished with confiscation and imprisonment ; and the second, 
of those who were to suffer death. The latter were cov- 
ered with a loose gown of yellow cloth, and wore upon 
the head a paper cap of conical form. Both the gown 
and cap were covered with pictures of flames fanned and 
fed by demons. Two priests were by the side of each 
one of the victims, urging him to abjure his errors. Those 
who were merely to endure loss of propert}' and to be 
thrown into the dungeons of the Inquisition were clothed 
in garments of black. A vast concourse of dignitaries of 
state, and of the common people, closed the procession. 
The fanaticism of the times was such, that probably but 
few of the people had any sympathy with the sufferers. 
The ceremonies were opened with a sermon by the bishop 
of Zamora. Then the whole assembled multitude took an 
oath, upon their knees, to defend the Inquisition and the 
purity of the Catholic faith, and to inform against any 
one who should swerve from the faith. Then those who, 
to escape the flames, had expressed penitence for their 
errors, after a very solemn recantation, were absolved 
from death. But heresy was too serious a crime to be 
forgiven.) even upon penitence. All were doomed to the 
confiscation of property, and to imprisonment — some for 
life — in the dungeons of the Inquisition. Their names 
were branded with infamy, and in many cases their im- 
mediate descendants were rendered ineligible to any public 
office. These first received their doom, and under a strong 
guard were conveyed back to prison. 

"And now all eyes were turned to the little band of 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 297 

thirty, who, in the garb of ignominy, and with ropes 
around their necks, were waiting their sentence. Many 
of these were men illustrious for rank, and still more re- 
nowned for talents and virtues. Their countenances 
were wan and wasted, their frames emaciated, and many 
of them were distorted by the cruel ministry of the rack. 
Those who were willing to make confession were allowed 
the privilege of being strangled before their bodies were 
exposed to the torture of the fire. After being strangled 
by the garrote^ their bodies were thrown into the flames. 
Enfeebled by suffering, all but two of them thus pur- 
chased exemption from being burned alive. 

"One of these, Don Carlos de Seso, was a Florentine 
noble. He had married a Spanish lady of high rank, and 
had taken up his residence in Spain, where he had adopted 
the principles of the Reformation. For fifteen months, 
with unshaken constancy, he had suffered in the dungeons 
of the Inquisition. When sentence of death at the stake 
was pronounced upon him, he called for pen and paper in 
his cell. His judges supposed that he intended to make 
confession. Instead of that he wrote a very eloquent 
document, avowing his unshaken trust in the great truths 
of the Reformation. De Seso had stood very high in the 
regards of Philip's father, Charles V. As he was passing 
before the royal gallery to be chained to the stake, he 
looked up to Philip, and said, ' Is it thus that you allow 
your innocent subjects to be persecuted ? ' The king re- 
plied, ' If it were my own son, I would fetch the wood to 
burn him, were he such a wretch as thou art.' 

" He was chained to the stake. As the flames slowly 
enveloped him in their fiery wreaths, he called upon the 
soldiers to heap up the fagots, that his agonies might 
sooner terminate. Soon life was extinct, and the soul of 



298 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN; 

the noble martyr was borne on angel wings to heaven. 
The fellow-sufferer of De Seso was Domingo de Rexas, 
son of the marquis of Posa. Five of this noble family, 
including the eldest son, had been victims of the Inquisi- 
tion. De Rexas had been a Dominican monk. In ac- 
cordance with usage, he retained his sacerdotal habit until 
he stood before the stake. Then in the midst of the jeers 
of the populace his garments were one by one removed, 
and the vestments of the condemned, with their hideous 
picturings, were placed upon him. He attempted to ad- 
dress the spectators. Philip angrily ordered him to be 
gagged. A piece of cleft wood was thrust into his mouth, 
causing great pain. He was thus led to the stake and 
burned alive. The cruel exhibition occupied from six 
o'clock in the morning until two o'clock in the afternoon." 

Such were some of the shocking and barbarous scenes 
connected with the notorious vSpanish Inquisition. This 
persecution raged year after year. So fiercely did these 
fires of persecution burn throughout all Spain, that nearl}^ 
all traces of the Protestant religion were eradicated from 
the kingdom. The Spaniards degenerated into semi-bar- 
barism. Education was discouraged, all human rights 
were trampled upon, and Spain became one of the most 
debased, impoverished, and miserable nations in Europe. 
Thus had religious fanaticism turned this fair province of 
Philip's into a desert. In regard to the blame which rests 
upon Phihp II., for this deplorable state of things, his 
own words will answer. He wrote to his sister, whom he 
had appointed his regent in the Netherlands, thus : — 

'' I have never had any object in view than the good of 
my subjects ! In all that I have done I have trod in the 
footsteps of my father, under whom the people of the 
Netherlands must admit that thev lived contented and 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 299 

happy. As to the Inquisition, whatever people may say 
of it, I have never attempted anything new. With re- 
gard to the edicts, I have been always resolved to live and 
die in the Catholic faith. I could not be content to have 
my subjects do otherwise. Yet I see not how this can 
be compassed without punishing the transgressors. God 
knows how willingly 1 would avoid shedding a drop of 
Christian blood ; but I would rather lose a hundred thou- 
sand lives, if I had so many, than allow a single change 
in matters of religion." 

In the Netherlands persecutions and rebellions caused 
constant strife. Scarcely forty years had elapsed since 
Luther had publicly burned the papal bull at AVittenburg. 
Since that time his doctrines had been received in Den- 
mark and Sweden. In England, under Queen Elizabeth, 
Protestantism had become the established religion of the 
state. The Reformation had reached the hills and valleys 
of Scotland, and tens of thousands had gathered to hear 
the preaching of Knox. The Low Countries, or Nether- 
lands, which now constitute Holland and Belgium, were 
the ""debatable laud," on which the various sects of 
reformers, the Lutherans, the Calvinists, and the P^nglish 
Protestants, contended for mastery over the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. Calvinism was embraced by some of the 
cantons of Switzerland, and had also spread widely 
through France, where the adherents to the Protestant 
faith were known as the Huguenots. The cry of the 
Reformation had passed the Alps, and was heard even 
under the walls of the Vatican, and had crossed the 
Pyrenees. 

The king of Navarre declared himself a Protestant, and 
the spirit of the Reformation, as we have related, had 
also secretly spread into Spain. But there already the 



300 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 

terrible iDqiiisition, with Philip II. at its head, had crushed 
out Protestantism from Spain. It was not to be expected 
that Philip, having exterminated heresy in one part of 
his dominions, would tolerate its existence in any other, 
least of all in so important a country as the Netherlands. 
So the persecutions commenced there. During the latter 
part of the fifteenth century, and the beginning of the 
sixteenth, the pontifical throne had been filled by a suc- 
cession of popes, notorious for their religious indifference, 
and the carelessness and profligacy of their lives. This 
was one of the prominent causes of the Reformation. 
But before the close of the sixteenth century, a line of 
popes had arisen, of stern and austere natures, without a 
touch of sympathy for the joys and sorrows of mankind, 
and entirely devoted to the work of regaining the lost 
powers of the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius the 
Fifth was such a pontiflT. He wrote to Philip, urging him 
not to falter in the good cause, and to allow no harm to 
the Catholic faith, but to march against his rebellious 
vassals at the head of his army, and wash out the stain of 
heresy in the blood of the heretic. To him Philip replied : 
that the Pope might rest assured that the king would con- 
sent to nothing that could prejudice the service of God, 
or the interests of religion. He deprecated force, as that 
would involve the ruin of the country. Still he would 
march in person, without regard to his own peril, and em- 
ploy force, though it should cost the ruin of the provinces ; 
but he would bring his vassals to submission. " For he 
would sooner lose a hundred lives, and every rood of em- 
pire, than reign a lord over heretics." 

With such a pope, and such a king, no wonder that the 
Inquisition flourished. 

The situation of the Netherlands was such that the 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIX. 301 

various opinions of the surrounding nations were easily 
transferred to their shores. On the south were the 
Lutherans of Germany ; on the west, the French Hugue- 
nots ; while by the oeean, they held communication with 
England and the nations of the Baltic. The soldier quar- 
tered on their territor}', the seaman who visited their 
shores, the trader who trafficked in their towns, brought 
with them different forms of the '' JSfew Religion.'''' As 
most of the people were able to read, books from France 
and Germany were circulated amongst them. Philip II. 
understood the importance of his position. His whole 
life proves that he felt it to be his especial mission 
to restore the tottering fortunes of Catholicism, and stay 
the torrent which was sweeping away the Roman Catholic 
faith. Philip had made his half-sister, Margaret, regent 
in the Netherlands. 

In order to a clearer understanding of the revolt in the 
Netherlands, a brief sketch of William, prince of Orange, 
will be necessar}'. He was descended from ancestors who 
had given an emperor to Germany ; AYilliam's parents 
were both Lutherans, and he was educated in that faith. 
But Charles V. obtained the consent of his parents to 
remove him to Brussels, when in his twelfth year, and he 
was brought up in the family of the Emperor's sister. In 
this household, the young prince was instructed in the 
Catholic faith. When fifteen years of age, William 
became the page of Charles V. On the abdication of that 
monarch, he commended William to Philip 11. , who at 
first received the prince of Orange with much favor. 
William married for his second wife, Anne, the daughter 
of Maurice, the great Lutheran champion ; and though he 
did not openly espouse the cause, but continued in the 
service of Philip, a writer of the times says of him : " The 



302 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 

prince of Orange passed for a Catholic among Catholics. 
and a Lutheran among Lutherans." But this portrait of 
him was hy an unfriendly hand, and a truer declaration is 
that of Prescott, '^ that he possessed a spirit of toleration, 
the more honorable that in that day it was so rare. He 
condemned the Calvinists as restless and seditious, and 
the Catholics for their bigoted attachment to a dogma. 
Persecution, in matters of faith, he totally condemned, 
for freedom of judgment in such matters he regarded as 
the inalienable right of man. These conclusions, at which 
the world, after an incalculable amount of human suffer- 
ing, has been three centuries in arriving, must be allowed 
to reflect great credit on the character of William, prince 
of Orange." 

There was now formed in the Netherlands a league 
called "The Gueux." Some of this party of confeder- 
ates demanded entire liberty of conscience ; others would 
not have stopped short of a revolution, that would enable 
the country to shake off the Spanish yoke. Though this 
party was a political rather than a religious organization, 
they joined hands with the Lutherans and Calvinists, and 
became, for a time, a great aid to the Reformation. The 
origin of their name, which became the fanatical war-cry 
of the insurgents, happened thus : Two or three hundred 
of these confederates went to Brussels, to petition Mar- 
garet, the regent, to mediate with Philip in their behalf, 
that they should have more political liberty, and be freed 
from the edicts and the Inquisition. During the week 
spent by the league in Brussels, a banquet was given, 
where three hundred of the confederates were present. 
During the repast, Brederode, one of their number, 
described the manner in which their petition had been 
received by the regent. " She seemed at first discon- 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 303 

certed," he said, "by the number of the confederates, 
but was reassured by Barlaimont, who told her that ' they 
were nothing but a crowd of beggars.' " 

Some of the company were much incensed at this 
treatment, bat Brederode, taking it good-humoredl}-, said, 
"that he and his friends had no objection to the name, 
since they were ready at any time to become beggars for 
the service of their king and country." This witty sally 
was received by the company with great applause, who 
shouted, " Viveyit les Gueux!" — "long live the beggars !" 
Brederode, finding the jest took so well, left the room, 
and soon returned with a beggar's wallet and a wooden 
bowl, such as were used by the mendicant fraternity in the 
Netherlands. Then pledging the company in a bumper, 
he swore to devote his life and fortune to the cause. The 
wallet and the bowl went round the table, and as each of 
the merry guests drank, the shout arose, "-Vivent les 
Gueux! " In every language in which the history of these 
acts has been recorded, the French term, Gueux, is em- 
ployed to designate this party of malcontents in the 
Netherlands. 

The league now adopted the dress and symbols of men- 
dicants. They affected their garments as a substitute for 
their family liveries, dressing their retainers in the asii- 
gray habiliments of the begging friars. Wooden bowls, 
spoons, and knives became in great request, though they 
were richly inlaid with silver, according to the wealth of 
the possessor. Pilgrims' staffs were carried, elaborately 
carved. Medals resembling those stuck by the beggars 
in their bonnets were worn as a badge. The "Gueux 
penny," as it was called, a gold or silver coin, was hung 
from the neck, bearing on one side the effigy of Philip, 
with the inscription, '•'• Fideles mi roi," and on the other, 



304 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 

two hands grasping a beggar's wallet, and the words, 
''jusqaes a porter la besace,'' — "Faithful to the king, 
even to carrying the wallet." The war-cr}^ of " Vivent 
les Giieux'' soon resounded through the Netherlands. 

Philip paid little or no attention to the frequent appeals 
of Margaret, his regent, that he should come to some 
concessions which should satisfy the people and bring the 
rebellion to an end. But while Philip was procrastinating, 
the Iconoclasts rose in fury, and inspired by a false zeal, 
committed many terrible, sacrilegious outrages, which cast 
dishonor upon the upholders of the Reformation. These 
Iconoclasts, or image-breakers, were simply armed mobs 
of ignorant people, who imagined they were doing a ser- 
vice to God by breaking into the Catholic churches, and 
ruthlessly destroying everything they could lay their hands 
on. Prescott thus describes the destruction caused by 
this band of rioters in Antwerp : — 

"When the rest of the congregation had withdrawn, 
after vespers, the mob rushed forward, as by a common 
impulse, broke open the doors of the chapel, and dragged 
forth the image of the Virgin. Some called on her to cry, 
' Vivent les Gueux ! ' while others tore off her embroidered 
robes and rolled the dumb idol in the dust, amidst the 
shouts of the spectators. 

" This was the signal for havoc. The rioters dispersed 
in all directions on the woi"k of destruction. High above 
ilie great altar was an image of the Saviour, curiously 
carved in wood, and placed between the effigies of the two 
thieves crucified with him. The mob contrived to get a 
rope round the neck of the statue of Christ, and dragged 
it to the ground. They then fell upon it with hatchets 
and hammers, and it was soon broken into a hundred 
fragments. The two thieves, it was remarked, were 
spared, as if to preside over the work of rapine below. 




DESTROYING STATUES, ETC., IN THE CATHEDRAL AT ANTWERP. 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 305 

" Their fury now turned against the other statues, 
which were quickly overthrown from their pedestals. 
The paintings that lined the walls of the cathedral were 
cut into shreds. Many of these were the choicest speci- 
mens of Flemish art, even then, in its dawn, o-ivino- 
promise of the glorious day which was to shed a lustre 
over the land. But the pride of the cathedral and of 
Antwerp was the great organ, renowned throughout the 
Netherlands, not more for its dimensions than its perfect 
workmanship. With their ladders the rioters scaled the 
lofty fabric, and with their implements soon converted it, 
like all else they laid their hands on, into a heap of 
rubbish. 

"The ruin was now universal. Nothing beautiful, 
nothing holy, was spared. The altars — and there were 
no less than seventy in the vast edifice — were overthrown 
one after another, their richly embroidered coverings 
rudely rent away, their gold and silver vessels appro- 
priated by the plunderers. The sacramental bread was 
trodden under foot, the wine was quaffed by the mis- 
creants, in golden chalices, to the health of one another, 
or of the Gueux, and the holy oil was profanely used to 
anoint their shoes and sandals. The sculptured tracery 
on the walls, the costly offerings that enriched the shrines, 
the screens of gilded bronze, the delicately carved wood- 
work of the pulpit, the marble and alabaster ornaments, 
all went down under the fierce blows of the Iconoclasts. 
The pavement was strewed with the ruined splendors of 
a church, which in size and magnificence was perhaps 
second onh' to St. Peter's among the churches of 
Christendom. 

"As the hght of day faded, the assailants supplied its 
place with such light as they could obtain from the can- 



306 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 

dies which they snatched from the altars. It was mid- 
night before the work of destruction was completed. The 
whole number engaged in this work is said not to have 
exceeded a hundred, men, women, and boys. 

" When their task was completed, they sallied forth in 
a body from the doors of the cathedral, roaring out the 
fanatical war-cry of " Viveyit les Gueux!" Flushed with 
success, and joined on the way by stragglers like them- 
selves, they burst open the doors of one church after 
another, and by the time morning broke, the principal 
temples in the city had been dealt with in the same ruth- 
less manner as the cathedral. 

" No attempt, all this time, was made to stop these 
proceedings, on the part of the magistrates or citizens. 
As they beheld from their windows the bodies of armed 
men hurrying to and fro, by the gleam of their torches, 
and listened to the sound of violence in the distance, they 
seem to have been struck with a panic. The Catholics 
remained within doors, fearing a general uprising of the 
Protestants. The Protestants feared to move abroad, 
lest they should be confounded with the rioters. For 
three days these dismal scenes continued. . . . The fate 
of Antwerp had its effect on the country. The flames of 
fanaticism, burning fiercer than ever, quickly spread over 
the northern as they had done over the western provinces. 
. . . In Holland, Utrecht, Friesland, — everywhere in 
short, with a few exceptions on the southern borders, — 
mobs rose against the churches." 

Cathedrals, chapels, monasteries, and nunneries, and 
even hospitals, were destroyed by these ignorant fanatics. 
The great library of Vicogne, one of the noblest collec- 
tions in the Netherlands, perished in the flames kindled 
by the mob. Four hundred churches were sacked by the 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 307 

insurgents in Flanders alone. The damage to the cathe- 
dral at Antwerp was said to amount to four hundred 
thousand ducats. The whole work of this terrible devas- 
tation, occupied less than a fortnight. This wholesale 
destruction, perpetrated by the Iconoclasts, cannot be 
estimated. It is a melanchoh^ fact that they pretended 
to be actuated b}' a zeal for the Reformation, thus dis- 
honoring the great and glorious cause, by their ignorant 
fanaticism. An irreparable loss was occasioned by the 
destruction of manuscripts, statuary, and paintings. 
But the misguided Iconoclasts, ruthless as was their terri- 
ble destruction of magnificent cathedrals and priceless 
gems of art, must in justice have this excuse offered in 
their behalf, that they had been enfuriated by the in- 
famous Inquisition which had turned Spain into one great 
auto de fe of burning martyrs, and which threatened, 
through the bigotry of Philip II., to invade their own land 
with its fiendish cruelties. Compared with the Inquisition, 
with its scarlet hands reeking with the life-blood of its 
tortured victims, the retaliation of the Iconoclasts is 
scarcely to be wondered at. 

The tidings of the tumult in the Netherlands was re- 
ceived by Philip with the greatest indignation, and he 
exclaimed : "It shall cost them dear ; by the soul of my 
father, I swear it, it shall cost them dear ! " 

These troubles in the Netherlands caused a chans^e in 
the mind of AYilliam, prince of Orange. He saw the work- 
ings of Catholicism under a fearful aspect. He beheld 
his countrymen dragged from their firesides, driven into 
exile, thrown into dungeons, burned at the stake ; and all 
this for no other cause than because they dared to dis- 
sent from the dogmas of the Romish Church. His 
parents had been Lutherans, his wife also was a Protes- 



308 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 

tant, and William of Orange embraced the doctrines of 
the Reformation. We cannot follow his career. After 
quelling a mob at Antwerp, which threatened to destroy 
the city, realizing that he could place no reUance upon 
Philip, or Margaret his regent, and as they now looked 
upon him with suspicion, William of Orange determined 
to retire to his estates in Germany. He there occupied 
himself with studying the Lutheran doctrine, and making 
himself acquainted with the principles of the glorious 
Reformation of which he was one day to become the 
champion. The regency of Margaret continued in the 
Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 ; and in the last years she 
succeeded in putting down the revolt. Philip, through 
his regent, and the aid of the Pope, had now, by several 
successful contests in the Netherlands, quelled the re- 
bellion, and the party of reform had disappeared, and its 
worship was everywhere proscribed. On its ruins the 
Catholic party had risen in greater splendor than ever. 
Margaret now resigned the regency, and the duke of Alva 
was appointed in her place. He created a new tribunal, 
wliich is known in history' by the terrible name it received 
from the people, as the " Council of Blood." 

In order to jnstif}^ his cruel proceedings against the 
Netherlands, Philip now submitted the case to the Inqui- 
sition at Madrid, and that ghostly tribunal came to the 
following decision : " All who had been guilty of heresy, 
apostasy, or sedition, and all, moreover, who, though pro- 
fessing themselves good Catholics, had offered no resist- 
ance to these, were, with the exception of a few specified 
individuals, thereb}^ convicted of treason in the highest 
degree." This sweeping judgment was followed by a 
royal edict, dated on the same day, in which, after re- 
citing the language of the Inquisition, the whole nation, 




FHILIP II., KING OF SPAIN. 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN'. 309 

with the exception above stated, was sentenced, without 

distinction of sex or age, to the penalties of treason, 

death and confiscation of property ; and this, the decree 
went on to say, " witliout any hope of grace whatever, 
that it might serve for an example and a warnino- to all 
future time ! " 

Then followed the awful work of the "Council of 
Blood." Men, women, and children were dragged to the 
gallows. Blood ran through the streets of the cities like 
a red river. The poor martyrs were tortured with horri- 
ble contrivances even at the scaffold, that their dyin^ 
cries might cause merriment for their fiendish foes. 

And thus Philip II. vindicates his conduct during this 
reign of terror: "What I have done has been for the 
repose of the provinces, and for the defence of the Catho- 
lic faith. If I had respected justice less, I should have 
despatched the whole business in a single day. No one 
acquainted with the state of affairs, will find reason to 
censure my severity. Nor would I do otherwise than I 
liave done, though I should risk the sovereignty of the 
Netherlands, — no, though the world should fall in ruins 
around me ! " 

The young Queen Isabella having died, Philip II. mar- 
ried for his fourth wife, Anne of Austria, who had also 
been affianced to his son Carlos. Then came the re- 
bellions of the Moriscoes, who were the descendants of 
the Moors in southern Spain. In 1569, the Moriscoes 
rose in a general insurrection against the Christians. 
Many a Moor had perished in the flames of the Inquisi- 
tion, and they now retaliated with bloodthirsty ferocity. 
The horrors which ensued cannot be described. Before 
these Moors had been goaded by the cruel edicts of 
Philip, they had been kind neighbors. The cruelties com- 



310 PHILIP 11. OF SPAIN. 

mitted by the Spanish troops sent against the Moors, 
were as shocking as the deeds of the barl)arians. The 
Spanish army, before entering into a battle, knelt in 
prayer, invoking God's blessing ; and after a victory, reek- 
ing with the blood of their victims, they marched, under 
the banner of the cross, to the cathedrals, and chanted the 
Te Deum. Thus was religion turned into a mockery of 
a merciful God, and a cloak for the vilest of crimes, 

Philii) brought his fourth bride, Anne of Austria, to the 
magnificent palace or monastery of the Escurial. She 
lived ten years. Her children all died in infancy, except 
one son, who lived to succeed his fatlier on the throne as 
Philip III. Spain was now rapidh' on the decline. Civil 
war. persecution, banishment and emigration, were fast 
depopulating the country. The population diminished 
from ten to six millions. 

As Queen Elizal)eth of England had warmW espoused 
the Protestant cause, there was enmity between that na- 
tion and Spain. In 1558, Philip II., of Spain, who had 
been for three years preparing the famous Spanish Ar- 
mada, ordered the fleet to sail against England. This 
splendid armada set sail from Lisbon with high hopes. 
But next day they met with a violent storm, which scat- 
tered some of the ships, and sunk others, and forced the 
rest to take shelter in the Groine. After the damages 
had been repaired, the armada again set forth. The fleet 
consisted of one hundred and thirt}^ vessels, and many of 
them were of greater size than had ever before been em- 
ployed in Europe. The plan of the king of Spain was, 
that the fleet should sail to the coast opposite to Dunkirk 
and Newport, and having joined the fleet of the duke of 
Parma, should make sail to the Thames, and having 
landed the whole Spanish army, complete at one blow the 



PHILIP II. OF SPAIN-. 311 

conquest of England. The armada reached Calais. 
Here the English admiral practised a stratagem upon the 
Spaniards. He took eight of his smaller vessels and 
filled them with combustibles, and setting them on fire, 
sent them amongst the Spanish fleet. In the confusion 
caused by this incident, the Enghsh fell upon the Spanish, 
and captured or destro3ed twelve of their ships. The 
Spanish admiral thereupon started to return home. A 
violent tempest overtook the armada after it passed the 
Orkneys. The ships were driven upon the western isles 
of Scotland, and coast of Ireland, and were miserably 
wrecked. Thus was the famous Spanish armada destroyed. 
It was almost a death blow to the Spanish monarchy. 
At length Philip 11. , with a bankrupt treasury, while his 
mind was filled with gloom and his body tortured with a 
loathsome and terrible disease, died on the 13th of Sep- 
tember, 1598. In view of his great opportunities, vast 
l)ower, and the hopeful promise of his early career, and 
the miserable ending of his wrecked life, brought upon 
himself bv his barbarous cruelties and relio-ious bio;otrv 
and superstitions, we are reminded of the saying quoted 
at the commencement of the sketch, and are more fully 
convinced that no people can be prosperous unless their 
rulers are humane and virtuous. In the light of such 
shocking events as we have just been describing, and of 
such barbarous deeds performed in the name of religion, 
it seems to be an indisputable fact that the world has 
surely made vast progress in an enlightened civilization 
and in true Christianity. 



312 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

1594-1632 A.D. 

"Ay, every inch a king ! " — Shakespeare. 

THE oldest account of the nations of Europe in the far 
north is that given by Pytheas, who lived three hun- 
dred and fift}' 3^ears before the Christian Era. His voy- 
ages carried him to the shores of Britain and Scandinavia. 
The Goths were the most ancient inhabitants of Scandi- 
navia, occupying the south, and were earlier in Sweden 
than the Sueones. These two tribes were at war for 
many years, but finally united and formed the Swedish 
nation. During twelve centuries after the visit of Pytheas 
to northern countries, nothing was known of the Scandina- 
vian people in their own homes, although wild tribes 
from the north overran soutliei'n Europe, and were known 
as the Cimbri, Teutons, Germans, and Goths. But in 
the time of Alfred the Great, two travellers from Scan- 
dinavia visited the court of the English king. From the 
account they gave of their travels, King Alfred wrote a 
brief history and made a chart of modern Europe. In 
this book Scandinavia was described. 

Of the three Scandinavian countries, Sweden did not 
become known to the nations of southern Europe as soon 
as Denmark and Norway. Like the Danes, the Swedes 
traced the descent of their early kings back to Odin. 
Olaf was the first Christian king of Sweden, and received 
Christian baptism about the year 1000 a.d. 




GUSIAVUS ADOLBirUS. 



GUSTAVU8 ADOLPHUS. 313 

The son and successor of Charlemagne, Louis le De- 
bonnaire, took an ardent interest in sending Christian 
missionaries to the pagans of the north. The union of 
the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway was 
consummated in 1387. In 1523 the union with Denmark 
was dissolved, and Gustavus Vasa was proclaimed king 
of Sweden. This king was one of the ablest of the mon- 
archs of the sixteenth century. He was the grandfather 
of Gustavus Adolphus. Charles IX., the father of Adol- 
phus, came to the throne of Sweden in 1604. During the 
reigns of the elder brothers of Charles, there had been 
constant conflicts with Denmark. Charles IX. died in 
1611, leaving an unfinished war with Denmark to be com- 
pleted by his illustrious son, Gustavus Adolphus, then 
seventeen years of age. His father, Charles, had entered 
into friendly alliances with all the principal Protestant 
powers, and for the first time Sweden had been brought 
into important political relations with the more influential 
European nations. Gustavus Adolphus was born at the 
royal palace in Stockliolm, Dec. 9, 1594. His mother, 
Christine, was the daughter of Adolphus, duke of Schles- 
wig-Holstein, and grand-daughter of Frederic I., king of 
Denmark. 

Tycho Brahe, the famous astronomer, had announced, 
when a comet appeared in 1572, that there would spring 
up in Finland a prince destined to accomplish great 
changes in Germany, and deliver the Protestant people 
from the oppression of the popes. His countrymen ap- 
plied to Gustavus this prediction of the Danish astronomer. 
Gustavus possessed a vigorous constitution, which was 
rendered robust by his childish experiences and manner of 
life. His early years were passed in the midst of con- 
stant wars between Sweden and Denmark. This account 



314 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

is given of the education and boyhood of Gustavus Adol- 
phus : — 

" To be the tutor of the prince was appointed Master 
John Skytte, and Otto von Morner his chamberlain. 
The last named was marshall of the court of Charles IX., 
and born of noble parents in Brandenburg. He had ac- 
quired extensive learning and distinguished manners in 
the numerous countries in which he had travelled. John 
Skytte, after having employed nine years in visiting for- 
eign lands, had become one of the secretaries of the 
king's government. Gustavus received all the instruc- 
tions necessary to a prince destined to reign. Skytte 
directed him in the study of Latin, of histor^^, and of the 
laws of his country. 

'' As Charles was a strict ruler and martial prince, and 
as Christine had, besides her beauty, the soul proud and 
courageous, the education of the prince was free from 
softness. He was habituated to labor. At times in his 
early youth, particularly after he had arrived at his tenth 
year, he was more and more allowed b}^ his father to at- 
tend the deliberations of the Council. He was habituated 
also to be i)resent at the audiences of the foreign embas- 
sies, and was finally directed by his royal father to answer 
these foreign dignitaries in order thus to accustom him to 
weighty affairs and their treatment. 

"As it was a period of warlike turmoils, there was much 
resort to the king's court, especially by othcers, — not 
onl}' Swedes, but also Germans, French, English, Scots, 
Netherlanders, and some Italians and vSpaniards, — who, 
after the twelve years' truce then just concluded between 
Spain and Holland, sought their fortune in Sweden. 
These often waited upon the young prince by the will and 
order of the king. Their conversation relating to the 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 315 

wars waged by other nations, battles, sieges, and disci- 
pline, both by sea and land as well as ships and naviga- 
tion, did so arouse and stimulate the mind of the young 
prince, by nature already thus inclined, that he spent 
almost every day in putting questions concerning what 
had happened at one place and another in the wars. Be- 
sides, he acquired in his youthful years no little insight 
into the science of war, especially into the mode and 
means, — how a regular war, well directed and suited to 
the circumstances of Sweden, should be carried on, hav- 
ing the character and rules of Maurice, prince of Orange, 
as a pattern before his eyes. By the intercourse and 
converse of these officers, in which each told the most 
glorious acts of his own nation, the young prince was en- 
kindled to act like others, and if possible, to excel them. 
In his early years he gained also a complete and ready 
knowledge of many foreign languages ; so that he spoke 
Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Italian as purely as 
a native, and besides had some knowledge of the Russian 
and Polish tongues. When he was of the age of sixteen 
years, his father made him grand duke of Finland, and 
duke of Esthonia and Westmanland, and presently be- 
stowed upon him the town of Vesteras, with the principal 
portion of Westmanland, over which was placed John 
Skytte to be governor." 

It is also stated that Gustavus knew Greek, and read 
Xenoplion in that tongue, of whom he said " that he knew 
of no writer better than he for a true military historian." 

For some years after Gustavus ascended the throne, he 
is said to have devoted an hour each day to reading, pre- 
ferring to all others the works of Grotius, especially his 
treatise on " War and Peace." 

Young Gustavus possessed great courage, to which was 



316 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

joined striking benignity of character which he did not 
inherit from his parents. King Charles was stern and 
somewhat heartless, and he was persuaded by his wife, 
the mother of Adolphus, to great acts of cruelty towards 
the victims of his civil wars, which obscured his nobler 
qualities. The mother of Gustavus, though possessed of 
a strong and positive character, was too tyrannical to be 
attractive, and too unrelenting to exert a loving influence 
in her household, and the severity of both husband and 
wife came often in collision. Adolphus was the only 
member of the ro3'al family who dared attempt to pacify 
his father when he was angry. Though Gustavus inherited 
the strong characteristics of his parents, and possessed 
his father's failing of a quick temper, his nature was so 
sympathetic and unselfish that his winning manners at- 
tracted the hearts of all as much as the unrelenting stern- 
ness of his parents repelled. Their sternness became in 
the household only exacting selfishness ; whereas all the 
severity of his character manifested itself only in unflinch- 
ing allegiance to the right and true, and the steadfast up- 
holding of high and noble principles of state or religion. 
Gustavus was scarcely fifteen 3'ears of age when he re- 
quested to be placed in command of troops in the war 
against Russia. But his father, deeming him too j^oung, 
refused. When he was seventeen ^^ears of age, war hav- 
ing been declared with Denmark, young Gustavus was 
pronounced in the Diet — as the assembly of the Swedish 
nobles was called — fit to bear the sword, and he was, 
according to ancient custom, invested with this dignity 
with most splendid ceremony. 

In this expedition young Gustavus endured his first 
trial of warfare, being present at all the remarkable 
encounters, holding chief command in most of them. 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 317 

For during this war King Charles died, and the command 
was left to Gustavus, then seventeen years of age. In 
the first month of his eighteenth year, he received the 
crown in the presence of all the representatives of the 
estates of Sweden, at the Diet of Nykoping. He took 
the title of his father, — king-elect and hereditary prince 
of Sweden, of the Goths, and of the Wends. Since the 
death of Gustavus Vasa, his grandfather, a period of 
more than fifty years, Sweden had not enjoyed a single 
year of peace. 

When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the Swedish throne, 
in 1611, being then in his eighteenth year, he found an 
exhausted treasury, an alienated nobilit}-, and not undis- 
puted" succession, and, with all this, no less than three 
wars upon his hands, — one with Denmark then raging, — 
also the seeds of two other wars, with Russia and with 
Poland, which soon after burst forth. The first fifteen 
years of his reign were occupied in bringing these wars to 
a conclusion ; and in these struggles he won an experience 
which afterwards proved of great service in making him 
illustrious upon a more conspicuous battle-field. We 
have not space to describe at length the wars between 
Sweden and Denmark, nor her conflicts with Russia and 
Poland, but must pass on to the more important period of 
the history of Gustavus Adolphus, which gives him a 
place in the foremost ranks of leadership, and places his 
name with Napoleon I., Alexander the Great, Julius 
Caesar, and Charlemagne. It was not so much what he 
himself personally accomplished, — though that was much, 
for death met him long before the glorious end was 
reached, — but it was on account of the vast and momen- 
tous train of circumstances he set in motion, because he 
stood forth, the only man capable of taking the helm of 



318 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HUS. 

the great ship of the Reformation, which, but for liim, 
aided by the almighty ruling of an Omniscient Providence, 
seemed to the finite vision of mankind doomed to de- 
struction. It was not as a conqueror of vast empires, 
like Alexander, Julius Caesar, and Napoleon, that Gusta- 
vus Adolphus is iUustrious ; but it is because, tlu'ough the 
providence of God, he was made the instrument in help- 
ing to achieve the more important conquest of gaining 
spiritual liberty of soul from the bondage of bigotry and 
superstition. As the champion of the Reformation, the 
name of Gustavus Adolphus must be placed amongst the 
foremost of the famous rulers of the world. 

Gustavus was now thirty-four years of age. He had 
prosecuted wars with Denmark, Russia, and Poland, and 
secured advantageous terms of peace with these nations. 
Before he had reached his twentieth year, he had driven 
back the invaders of his countr}^, and gained indepen- 
dence for Sweden. In four years more, liis victories over 
his eastern enemies enabled him to declare, " Russia can- 
not now, without our consent, launch a single boat on the 
Baltic." 

For twelve years Gustavus had watclied the bloody 
strife between the defenders of the Reformed Faith in 
German}' and the powers of the Catholic league of the 
Em[)ire and of Spain. What Philip II. of Spain was to 
the Catholics as a leader and upholder of the infamous In- 
quisition, such a power did Gustavus Adolphus become, 
in behalf of the Protestants, as a leader and defender of 
the Reformation. Holland, England, and France had 
earnestly pressed him to conclude the Polish wars ; for 
the eyes of the suffering adherents of the Reformed Faith 
in Germany were turned in hope toward the 3^outhful king 
of Sweden as their deliverer. In setting out upon this 




g!i>'* 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHLIS, FROM A PICTURE BY VAN DYCK. 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUH. 319 

distant enterprise, Gustavus Adolphus encountered the 
gravest obstacles, which he himself did not fail to realize ; 
for when his resolution was fully formed, and the consent 
of his Estates obtained, he exclaimed, " For me there re- 
mains henceforth no more rest but the eternal." 

Though he left Sweden full of hope and courage, it was 
with the sure presentiment that he would never return. 
Gustavus had married Marie Eleonore, daughter of the 
elector of Brandenburg ; and at the time of his German 
expedition left a little daughter behind him, only four 
years of age, who was sole heir to the Swedish throne. 
Gustavus Adolphus was one of the most skilful com- 
manders of his age. Napoleon I. was wont to set him 
among the eight greatest generals whom the world has ever 
seen, placing him in the same rank with Alexander the 
Great, Hannibal, Julius Ciiesar, in the ancient world, 
with Turenne, Prince Eugene, Frederic the Great, and 
himself, in the modern. 

Before his time, the only artillery brought into the open 
field consisted of huge, heavy guns, slowly dragged along 
by twelve, sixteen, or twenty horses or oxen, which, once 
placed, could only remain in one position, even though 
the entire battle had shifted elsewhere. Gustavus was 
the first who introduced flying artiller}-, capable of being 
rapidly transferred from one i^art of the field to another. 
At a siege, this valiant Swedish king would in the same 
day " be at once generalissimo, chief engineer to lay out 
the lines, pioneer, spade in hand and in his shirt digging 
in the trenches, and leader of a storming party to dislodge 
the foe from some annoying outwork. If a party of the 
enemy's cavalry were to be surprised in a night attack, 
he would himself undertake the surprise. He, indeed, 
carried this quite too far, obeying overmuch the instinct 



320 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HITS. 

mid impulses of his own courageous heart. And yet there 
was also a true humility in it all, — a feeling that no man 
ought to look at himself as indispensable. ' God is 
immortal,' he was wont to reply, when remonstrated with 
on this matter, and reminded of the fearful chasm, not to 
be filled by any other, which his death would assuredly 
leave." Richelieu said of him, ''The king of Sweden 
is a new sun which has just risen, young, but of vast 
renown. The ill-treated or banished princes of Germany 
in their misfortunes have turned their eyes towards him as 
the mariner does to the polar star." 

Gustavus was admitted b}' the a])lest statesmen of 
Europe to be the ablest general of his time. He was 
familiar with the military tactics of ancient and modern 
times, and he devised a more effective system of warfare 
than his predecessors had known. In answer to the ques- 
tion. Why did Gustavus Adolphus enter into the religious 
contests of Gei-many, and assume the commanding place 
he filled in that terril)lc struggle known as the "Thirty 
Years' War " ? an able writer gives thus briefly tiie 
reason : — 

''First, a deep and genuine sympatliy with his co-reli- 
gionists in Germany, and with their sufferings, joined to 
a conviction that he was called of God to assist them in 
this hour of their utmost need. 

" Secondly, a sense of the most real danger which 
threatened his own kingdom, if the entire liberties, politi- 
cal and religious, of northern Germany were trodden out, 
and the free cities of the German Ocean, Stralsund and 
the rest, falling into the hands of the emperor, became 
hostile outposts from which to assail him. He felt that 
he was only going to meet a war which, if he tarried at 
home, would sooner or later inevitably come to seek him 
there. * 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 321 

" And, lastly, there was working in his mind, no doubt, 
a desire to give to Sweden a more forward place in the 
world, with a consciousness of mighty powers in himself, 
which craved a wider sphere for their exercise." 

In answer to John Skytte, who remarked that war put 
his monarchy at stake, he responded: "All monarchies 
have passed from one famiW to another. That which 
constitutes a monarchy is not men, it is the law." 

At length, in 1630, Gustavus landed on the island of 
Usedom, at the mouth of the Oder. 

" So we have got another kingling on our hands," the 
emperor exclaimed in scorn, when the news reached 
Vienna. Little did the enemies of the Reformation then 
imagine what a terrible and irresistible foe this despised 
" kingling " would prove to be. The army of Gustavus 
consisted of only fifteen thousand men ; but, if his army 
was small, the material was indeed valuable. Gustavus 
said of his staff of officers, " All these are captains, and 
fit to command armies." And when his early death left 
them without a leader, these same officers led the Swedish 
armies so successful^ that, even after France had become 
her ally, Sweden was not obscured, but still held a promi- 
nent place in the mighty contest. Gustavus had deter- 
mined not to hazard a battle until he was joined by German 
allies. As soon as they landed on the island of Usedom, 
Gustavus, having leaped first upon the shore, at once fell 
upon his knees, and sought the aid and blessing of God ; 
and then the working and the praying went hand in hand. 
He was the first to seize a spade ; and, as tlie troops 
landed, one half were employed in raising intrenchments, 
while the other half stood in battle array, to repel any 
attacks of the enemy. It was a long time before any 
German ally appeared ; for, though gallant little Hesse 



322 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

Cassel boldW announced its allegiance, it was a power too 
small and too distant to count for much. The two most 
powerful of the German Protestant princes were his 
brother-in-law, the elector of Brandenburg, and the elector 
of Saxony. John George of Saxony was a great hunter, 
having killed with his own hand or seen killed 113,629 
wild animals. He was, however, such a great drunkard 
that he was called the Beer King. But this bold Nimrod, 
who could fight wild animals so courageously, was too 
cowardly to come forward against the enemies of his 
country, and only joined Gustavus when the terrors of 
the Catholic lea2;ue forced him to seek safetv in such an 
alliance. 

As to the brother-in-law of Gustavus, little was to be 
obtained from him. He was so vacillating in character 
and in politics that Carlyle says of him, " Poor man, it 
was his fate to stand in the range of these huge collisions, 
when the Titans were hurling rocks at one another, and 
he hoped b}- dexterous skipping to escape share of the 
game." 

The arrival of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany was at 
first looked upon with indifference b}' the imperial court. 
The emperor Ferdinand said carelessl}', "We have another 
little enemy before us." At Vienna they made sport of 
Gustavus and of his pretensions to require himself to be 
called "Your majesty," like the other kings of Europe. 
" The snow-king will melt as he approaches the southern 
sun," they exclaimed derisively. But the valiant Swedes 
worked on at their fortifications at Pomerania, indifferent 
to the sneers of their foes, inspired l)y the example of 
their loved leader, whose watchword was, " to prav often 
to God with all your heart is almost to conquer." In a 
short time, the army was enclosed in an intrenched camp. 



GU8TAVUS ADOLPHUS. 323 

defended b}^ cannon. The king of Sweden then addressed 
these stirring words to his soldiers : — 

'^ It is as much on your account as for your religious 
brethren in Germany that I have undertaken this war. 
You will there gather imperishable glory. You have 
nothing to fear from the enemy ; they are the same whom 
you have already conquered in Prussia. Your bravery 
has imposed on Poland an armistice of six years ; if 3^ou 
continue to fight as valiantl}^, I hope to obtain an honora- 
ble peace for your country and guaranties of security for 
the German Protestants. Old soldiers, it is not of yes- 
terday you have known war ; for you have shared with 
me all the chances of fortuiie. You must not lose cour- 
age if you. experience some wants. I will conduct you to 
an enemy who has enriched himself at the expense of that 
unhappy country. It is only with the enemy you can find 
money, abundance, and all which you desire." 

Thus did Gustavus appeal to their courage, their patri- 
otism, their religious enthusiasm, and their personal neces- 
sities, and inspire his soldiers with irresistible valor. 

The severe discipline of the Swedish troops excited not 
less admiration than the personal virtue of their king. 
Richelieu, in his memoirs, says, " As to the king of Swe- 
den personall}', there was seen in his actions but an inex- 
orable severit}^ towards the least excess of his soldiers, an 
extraordinary mildness towards the people, and an exact 
justice on all occasions." 

It was at the time of the landing of the Swedes that the 
noted general Wallenstein had fallen into disgrace with 
the German emperor, and had been discharged from the 
imperial service. His place was filled by Tilly, a military 
chieftain of high renown. Tilly had made himself the 
terror of the Protestants by his bigoted zeal for the Cath- 



324 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

olic religion and his fierce spirit of persecution towards 
the Reformed Faith ; but his military insight made him 
just enough to thus generously describe his famous antag- 
onist : — 

' ' The king of Sweden is an enemy both prudent and 
brave, inured to war, and in the flower of his age. His 
plans are excellent, his resources considerable, his sub- 
jects enthusiastically attached to him. His army, — com- 
posed of Swedes, Germans, Livonians, Finlanders, Scots, 
and English, — by its devoted obedience to their leader, is 
blended into one nation. He is a gamester, in playing 
with whom not to have lost is to have won a great deal." 

Gustavus was beginning to make a strong position in 
northern Germany, when he received an envoy from the 
elector of Brandenburg, urging him to consent to an ar- 
mistice, the elector offering himself as a mediator between 
the Swedish king and the Catholic league. Gustavus 
thus answered this weak and cowardly advice of the 
elector : — 

"I have listened to the arguments by which my lord 
and brother-in-law would seek to dissuade me from the 
war, but could well have expected another communication 
from him ; namely, that God having helped me thus far, 
and come, as I am, into this land for no other end than 
to deliver its poor and oppressed estates and people from 
the horrible tyranny of the thieves and robbers who have 
plagued it so long, above all, to free his highness from 
like tribulation, he would rather have joined himself with 
me, and thus not failed to seize the opportunity which 
God has wonderfully vouchsafed him. Or does not his 
highness yet know that the intention of the emperor and 
of the league is this, — not to cease till the evangelical 
religion is quite rooted out of the empire, and that he 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 325 

himself has nothing else to look forward to than to be 
compelled either to deny his faith or to forsake his land ? 
For God's sake, let him bethink himself a little, and for 
once grasp manly connsels. For myself, I cannot go back. 
... I seek in this work not mine own things, no profit at 
all except the safety of my kingdom ; else have I nothing 
from it bnt expense, weariness, toil, and danger of life 
and limb. . . . For this, 1 say plainly beforehand, I will 
hear and know nothing of nentrality ; his highness must 
be friend or foe. When I come to his borders, he must 
declare himself hot or cold. The battle is one between 
God and the devil. Will his highness hold with God, let 
him stand on my side ; if he prefer to hold with the devil, 
then he must fight with me." 

The elector of Brandenburg still vacillating, the king of 
Sweden was as good as his word, and advanced with his 
arm}^ with loaded cannon and matches burning, to the 
gates of Berlin. Whereupon, the treaty of alliance was 
quickly signed by the elector of Brandenburg ; and not 
long after, the outrages of the imperial commander obliged 
the elector of Saxony also to join the Swedish king. 
During the first 3'ear in Germany, the Swedes had cap- 
tured Greiffenhagen and Gartz ; and soon after New 
Brandenburg, Loitz, Malchin, and Demmin were in 
their power. We have no space to note the particulars 
regarding these important conquests, and can only men- 
tion the taking of Demmin. The Imperialists had placed 
the garrison here under the command of Duke Savelli, 
who had been ordered to defend the place three weeks, 
when Tilly had promised to come to his aid. Among the 
Imperialists was Del Ponte, a man who had been deep in 
a conspiracy to assassinate the king of Sweden, which 
had come near being successful. As Del Ponte feared 



326 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

the vengeance of the king whose life he had thus sought, 
he left the fortress secretl}', leaving his baggage and 
wealth behind him. Savelli offered to capitulate, on con- 
dition that he might pass out with arms and baggage. As 
Gustavus was now on the eve of meeting Tilly, he did 
not think best to prolong the siege, and so agreed to 
the proposal of Savelli. The entire garrison passed out 
with ensigns flying, followed by the baggage train. As 
Savelli, brilliantly and carefully dressed, passed the Swed- 
ish king, Gustavus addressed him: "Tell the emperor 
I make war for civil and religious liberty. As to you, 
duke, I thank you for having taken the trouble to quit the 
splendid feasts of Rome to combat against me, for your 
person seems to me more in its place at courts than in 
the camps." After the Italian general passed, Gustavus 
remarked to his officers, "That man reckons much on the 
good nature of the emperor ; if he was in my service, he 
would lose his head for his cowardice." 

As the baggage of the treacherous Del Ponte was 
noticed in the train, some of the Swedish officers sug- 
gested that it would be well to retain what belonged to 
that traitor, to which Gustavus responded, " I have given 
my word, and no one shall have the right to reproach me 
for having broken it." As to the energy and bravery of 
Gustavus, one of his Scotch officers thus testifies: "I 
serve with great pleasure such a general, and I could find 
with difficulty a similar man who was accustomed to be 
the first and the last where there is danger ; who gained 
the love of his officers b}^ the part he took in their troubles 
and fatigues ; who knew so well how to trace the rules of 
conduct for his warriors according to times and circum- 
stances ; who cared for their health, their honor ; who 
was always ready to aid them ; who divined the projects 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 327 

and knew the resources of his enemies, their plans, their 
forces, their discipline, likewise the nature and position of 
the places they occupied. He never hesitated to execute 
what he had ordered. He arrested an officer who, while 
the fortifications of Settin were being repaired, stated 
that the earth was frozen. In affairs which had relation 
to the needs of the war, he did not admit of excuses. 
The lack of good charts and the great importance he at- 
tached to knowledge of the ground, caused him to go en 
reconnaismnce in person, and expose himself very near to 
danger, for he was short-sighted." 

At the siege of Demmin he had gone to reconnoitre, 
and held a spy-glass in hand, when he plunged half- 
leg deep in the marsh, in consequence of the breaking of 
the ice. The officer nearest to him prepared to come to 
his aid. Gustavus made a sign to him to remain tranquil, 
so as not to draw the attention of the enemy who, not 
less, directed his fire upon him. The king raised himself 
up in the midst of a shower of projectiles, and went to 
dry himself at the bivouac fire of the officer, who reproached 
him for having thus exposed his precious hfe. The king 
listened to the officer with kindness and acknowledged his 
imprudence, but added, "It is my nature not to believe 
well done except what I do myself ; it is also necessary 
that I see everything by my own eyes." Gustavus now 
advanced boldly into the heart of Germany, and met the 
forces of the Catholic League on the plains of Leipsic. 
As the Swedes drew up in line of battle, Gustavus rode 
from point to point, encouraging his soldiers, tilling them 
" not to fire until they saw the white of the enemies' 
eyes." 

Then the Swedish king rode to the centre of his line, 
halted, removed his cap with one hand and lowered his 



328 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HUB. 

sword with the other. His example was follcwed by all 
near him. Oustavus then offered this brief prayer in a 
powerful voice, which enabled him to be heard by a large 
number of his army : — 

"Good God, thou who boldest in thy hand victory 
and defeat, turn thy merciful face to us thy servants. 
We have come far, we have left our peaceful homes to 
combat in this country for liberty, for the truth, and for 
thy gospel. Glorify thy holy name in granting us vic- 
tory." 

Then the Swedish king sent a trumpeter to challenge 
Till}' and his army. The battle ensued, in which Gusta- 
vus defeated Tilly, the victor on more than twenty battle- 
fields. The king of Sweden so shattered and scattered 
the Catholic army in this conflict, that for a while all 
Germany was open to him. Gustavus was now ever}^- 
where hailed by the down-trodden Protestants of Germany, 
whose worship he re-established, and whose churches he 
restored to them, as their saviour and deliverer. The 
very excess of their gratitude would sometimes make him 
afraid. Only three days before his death he said to his 
chaplain, "They make a god of me ; God will punish me 
for this." 

The appearance of Gustavus at this time is thus de- 
scribed : "He was one 'framed in the prodigality of 
nature.' His look proclaimed the hero, and at the same 
time, the genuine child of the North. A head taller than 
men of the ordinary stature, yet all his limbs were per- 
fectly proportioned. Majesty and courage shone out 
from his clear gray ej-es ; while, at the same time, an air 
of mildness and honliommie tempered the earnestness of 
his glance. He had the curved eagle nose of Cfesar, of 
Napoleon, of Wellington, of Napier, — the conqueror's 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 329 

nose as we may call it. His skin was fair, his hair blonde, 
almost gold- colored, so that the Italians were wont to call 
him. Re d 'oro or the Gold-lving. In latter years he was 
somewhat inclined to corpulence, though not so much as 
to detract from the majesty of his appearance. This made 
it, however, not easy to find a horse which was equal to 
liis weight. 

Gustavus now carried his victorious arms to the banks 
of the Rhine, where there still stands, not far from Ma^^- 
ence, what is known as the Swedish column. On the 
banks of the Lech he again met Tilly, who would have 
barred the way. Some of the officers in the Swedish 
arm}' counselled that the king should not meet Tilly, but 
should march to Bohemia. 

The Lech was deep and rapid, and to cross it in the 
face of an enemy was ver}' hazardous. In case of failure 
the entire Swedish army would be lost. But Gustavus ex- 
claimed, "What! have we crossed the Baltic, the Oder, 
the Elbe, and the Rhine, to stop stupefied before this mere 
stream, the Lech? Remember that the undertakings the 
most difficult are often those which succeed best, because 
the adverse party regard them as impossible." 

Gustavus threw over the Lech a bridge under the cross- 
fire of seventy-two pieces of cannon. The king stimu- 
lated his troops by his own example, making with his own 
hand more than sixt}' cannon discharges. The enemy 
did their utmost to destroy the works, and Tilly was un- 
daunted in his exertions to encourage his men, until he 
was mortally wounded by a cannon-ball, and victory soon 
was on the side of the lieroic Swedes. 

This crossing of the Lech in the face of an enemy is es- 
teemed the most signal military exploit of Gustavus. 
The emperor was now forced to recall Wallenstein to lead 



330 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 

the hard-pressed Imperialists against this invincible Swed- 
ish king. 

But with the battle of Liitzen, where the Swedes en- 
countered the Imperialists under Wallenstein, we come 
also to the lamentable but heroic death of Gustavus 
Adolphus. We cannot recount the further conflicts of 
the Thirty Years' War. 

The work of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany was con- 
tinued by his able generals and allies, until at length the 
treaty, concluded at Westphalia in 1G48, gave security 
and permanence to the work which the king of Sweden 
and his brave soldiers had in a large degree achieved 
before his death. A wound which Gustavus had received 
in his Polish wars, made the wearing of armor very pain- 
ful to him, and upon the morning of the day upon which 
the battle of Liitzen was fought, when his armor was 
brought to him, he declined to put it on, saying, " God is 
my armor." 

His death is thus described. Learning that the centre 
of the Swedish lines were wavering, Gustavus hastened 
thither. "Arriving at the wavering centre, he cried to 
his troops, ' Follow me, my brave boys ! ' and his horse 
at a bound bore him across the ditch. Only a few of his 
cavaliers followed him, their steeds not being equal to 
his. Owing to his impetuosity, perhaps also to his near- 
sightedness and the increasing fog, he did not perceive 
to what extent he was in advance, and became separated 
from the troops he was so bravely leading. An imperial 
corporal, noticing that the Swedes made way for an ad- 
vancing cavalier, pointed him out to a musketeer, saying, 
he must be a personage of high rank, and urged him to 
fire on him. The musketeer took aim, his ball broke the 
left arm of the king, causing the bone to protrude, and 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 331 

the blood to rim freely. ' The king bleeds ! ' cried the 
Swedes near him. ' It is nothing ; march forward my 
boys ! ' responded the wounded hero, seeking to calm 
their disquietude by assuming a smiling countenance. 
But soon overcome by pain and loss of blood, he re- 
quested Duke Lauenburg, in French, to lead him out of 
the tumult without being observed, which was sought to 
be done by making a detour^ so as to conceal the king's 
withdrawal from his brave Smolanders he was leading to 
the charge. Scarcely had they made a few steps, when 
one of the imperial regiment of cuirassiers encountered 
them, preceded by Lieut.-Col. Falkenberg, who, recog- 
nizing the king, fired a pistol shot, hitting him in the 
back. ' Brother,' said he to Lauenburg, with a dying 
voice ; ' I have enough. Look to 3^00 r own life.' Falken- 
berg was immediately slain by the equerry of the duke of 
Lauenburg. At the same moment the king fell from his 
horse, struck by several more balls, and was dragged 
some distance by the stirrups. The duke of Lauenburg 
fled. Of the king's two orderlies, one lay dead and the 
other wounded. Of his attendants, only a German 
page, named Leubelfing, remained by him. The king 
having fallen from his horse, the page jumped from his 
own, and offered it to the dying hero. The king stretched 
out his hands, but the young man had not strength suffi- 
cient to lift him from the ground. Meanwhile the im- 
perial cuirassiers hastened forward, and demanded the 
name of the wounded officer. The loyal page would not 
reveal it, and received wounds from which he died soon 
after. But the dying Gustavus bravely answered, ' I am 
the king of Sweden.' Whereupou his cruel enemies shot 
a ball through his head, and thrust their swords through 
his bleeding body. His hat, blackened with the powder 



332 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HUS. 

and pierced with the ball, is still to be seen in the arsenal 
at Vienna ; his bloody bnff coat as well. More is not 
known of the final agony, except that, when tlie tide 
of battle had a little ebbed, the body of the hero-king 
was found with the face to the ground, despoiled and 
stripped to the shirt, trodden under the hoofs of horses, 
trampled in the mire, and disfigured with all these 
wounds." 

Such was the end of the imposing and kingly bodily 
presence ; but this was not the end of the accomplish- 
ment of that heroic soul. When the horse of the fallen 
Gustavus, with its empty saddle covered with ])lood, 
came running amongst the Swedish troops, they knew 
what had happened to their king. Duke Bernhard, riding 
through the ranks, exclaimed, " Swedes, Finlanders, and 
Germans ! your defender, the defender of our liberty, is 
dead. Life is nothing to me if I do not draw bloody 
veno;eance from this misfortune. Whoever wishes to 
prove he loved the king, has only to follow me to avenge 
his death." The whole Swedish army, fired by a common 
enthusiasm nerved by desperation, advanced to the attack, 
and so valiantly did they fight, that their gallant charge 
completed the victory of Liitzen. Thus died the " Gold- 
king of the North " ; but his d3'ing hours were gilded by 
the sunset glories of immortal fame, and the "Snow- 
king," of Sweden, leaves a name as pure and glistening 
as the Starr}' snow-flakes. 

" Great men, far more than any Alps or coliseums, are 
the true world-wonders, which it concerns us to behold 
clearl}^ and imprint forever on our remembrance. Great 
men are the fire-pillars in this dark pilgrimage of man- 
kind ; they stand as heavenly signs, ever-living witnesses 
of what has been, — prophetic witnesses of what may 




DEATH OF GUSTAVUS-AND HIS PAGE. 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 333 

Still be; the revealed embodied possibilities of human 
nature, which greatness he who has never with his whole 
heart passionately loved and reverenced, is himself forever 
doomed to be little." 



334 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

1638-1715 A.D. 

"To do what one pleases with impunity, 
That is to be King." — Sallust. 

THE reign of Louis XIV., whether regarded politically, 
socially, or morally, was undoubtedly the most strik- 
ing which France has ever known. The splendor of his 
court, the successes of his armies, and the illustrious 
names that embellished the century over which he ruled, 
drew the attention of all Europe to the person of the 
monarch who, every inch a king, assumed the authority 
and power of regality as well as its mere visible attributes. 
All Europe looked to France, all France to Paris, all 
Paris to Versailles, all Versailles to Louis XIV. 

The centre of all attraction, he, like the eagle, embraced 
the whole glory of the orb upon which he gazed ; and 
seated firmly upon the throne of France, ruling by the 
" right divine," he ushered in the golden age of literature, 
himself the theme and gaze and wonder of a dazzled 
world. 

The morning of the 5th of September, 1638, dawned 
bright and clear. In the forest of St. Germain, the birds 
sang merrily in the trees, and the timid deer sought shel- 
ter in the deepest shade, all unconscious that ere the set- 
ting of the sun a royal prince would look upon it for the 
first time. 




■"*<' 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 335 

The park and palace were filled with an eager and ex- 
cited throng ; earls, princes, dukes, and bishops anxiously 
awaited the announcement that an heir was born to the 
crown of France. In the grand salon of Henry IV., 
King Louis XIII., the Duke d'Orleans, the bishops of 
Lisieux, Meaux, and Beauvais, impatiently awaited the 
long-expected tidings. And now the folding-doors are 
thrown back, and the king is greeted with the welcome 
intelligence that he is the father of a dauphin. Tenderly 
he takes the child, and stepping upon the balcony, exhib- 
its him to the crowd, exclaiming joyfully, "A son, gen- 
tlemen! a son!" and park and palace re-echo with the 
shouts of '' Vive le Hoi T' '^ Vive le Dauphin!'' 

Thus this baby prince, when first he saw the lidit, was 
greeted by the homage of a court — an homage which, 
during a life of seventy-seven years, he ever exacted 
and received, until as Louis XIV., the Gimid Monarque, 
in obedience to Him who is King of kings and Lord of 
lords, he laid aside his sceptre and his crown, and slept 
with his fathers in the royal vaults of St. Denis. The 
birth of the dauphin afforded Louis XIII. such delight 
that for a time he threw aside his melancholy manner ; 
but his health, never robust, failed rapidly, and on the 
20tli of April, 1643, feeling that his end could not be far 
distant, he declared the regency of the queen, and desired 
the christening of the dauphin. It accordingly took place 
on the following day with much pomp in the chapel at St. 
Germain. The king desired he should be called Louis, 
and after the ceremony, when the little prince was carried 
to his bedside in order to ascertain if his wiehes had been 
fulfilled, he demanded, "What is your name, my child?" 
And the little dauphin replied promptly, " I am Louis 
XIV." 



336 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

"Not yet, my son, not yet!" said the dying- king ; 
" but I pray to God that it may soon be so." 

From this time his health failed rapidly, and on the 14th 
of May, lG4o, he expired, having reigned thirty-three 
3' ears. 

The little dauphin early displayed that haughtiness and 
self-will which were to be the ruling principles of his life. 
His education had been grossly neglected, and through 
this came many of his after faults ; and though he ex- 
celled in every punctilio of court etiquette, and was the 
very essence of politeness, yet in other things he was far 
behind the other youths of his age. This was exactly as 
Cardinal Mazarin intended that it should be, that by thus 
dwarfing the intellect of the king, he might the longer 
grasp the reins of government. The wily cardinal fully 
understood the character of the young prince with whoni 
he had to deal, and upon one occasion, when some one 
remonstrated with him concerning the course he had 
adopted toward the king, he replied, "Ah, you do not 
know His Majesty ! he has the stuff in him to make four 
kino;s and an honest man." 

The hatred and dislike of Louis for the cardinal in- 
creased day by da}^ The state affected by him jarred 
upon his natural haughtiness, and, boy as he was, it was 
impossible that he could contrast the extreme magnifi- 
cence of his mother's minister with his own neglected con- 
dition without feeling how insultingly the cardinal had 
profited by his weakness and want of power. On one 
occasion at Compifegne, as the cardinal was passing with 
a numerous suite along the terrace, the king turned away, 
saying contemptuously, without any attempt to lower his 
voice, " There is the Grand Turk going by." 

A few days afterwards, as he was traversing a passage 



LOnS XIV. OF FRANCE. 337 

in which he perceived one of the cardinal's household 
named Bois Ferme, he turned to M. de Nyert, who was 
following him, and observed, " So the cardinal is with 
mamma again, for I see Bois Ferm^ in the passage. Does 
he always wait there?" 

•'Yes, sire," replied Nyert; "but in addition to Bois 
Ferme there is another gentleman upon the stairs and two 
in the corridor." 

"There is one at every stride, then," said the young 
kinjj dryly. 

But the boy-king was not the only one who found the 
arrogance of the haughty cardinal unbearable. There 
had gradually sprung up a deadly feud between the court 
and Mazarin on one side, and the Parliament on the 
other. 

The people of Paris were in sympathy with the Parlia- 
ment ; and nobles, even of royal blood, oat of enmity to 
Mazarin, joined the popular cause. 

Thus commenced the famous civil war of the Fronde ; 
for as the cardinal contemptuously remarked, "The 
Parliament are like school-boys fronding in the Paris 
ditches,'' and the Parliament of Paris accepted the title, 
and adopted the Fronde, or sling, as the emblem of theh' 
party. There were riots in Paris, and affairs grew 
threatening. Mazarin and the court part}' were alarmed 
and fled to St. Germain. 

Thus there were two rival courts in France, — the one at 
St. Germain, where all was want and destitution ; the 
other at the Hotel de Ville in Paris, wdiere all was splen- 
dor, abundance, and festive enjoyment. The court and 
Mazarin soon tired of the life at St. Germain, and the 
king sent a herald to the Parliament. The Parliament 
refused to receive the herald, but sent a deputation to the 



338 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

kino-, and at last, after a lengthy conference, a not very 
satisfactory compromise was agreed upon, and on the 5th 
of April, 1650, the royal fugitives returned to Paris. 

"Thus ended the first act of the most singular, bootless, 
and we are almost tempted to add, burlesque war, which 
in all probability, Europe ever witnessed. Through its 
whole duration society appeared to have been smitten with 
some moral hallucination. Kings and cardinals slept on 
mattresses ; princesses and duchesses on straw ; market- 
women embraced princes ; prelates governed armies ; 
court-ladies led the mob, and the mob in its turn ruled 
the city." 

On the 5th of September, 1G51, the minority of the 
dauphin ceased. He had now entered upon his fourteenth 
3^ear, and, immature l)oy as he was, he was declared to be 
the absolute monarch of France. On the seventli of the 
month, the king held his ])ed of justice. The ceremony 
was attended with all the pomp the wealth of the empire 
could furnish. The young king left the Palais Royal 
attended by a numerous and splendid retinue. Observed 
of all observers, " handsome as Adonis, august in majesty, 
the pride and joy of humanity," he sat his splendid steed ; 
and when the horse, frightened by the long and enthusi- 
astically prolonged cries of, '' Vive le Roi!^' reared and 
plunged with terror, Louis managed hira with a skill and 
address which called forth the admiration of all beholders. 
After attending mass, the young king took his seat in the 
Parliament. Here the boy of thirteen, covering his head 
while all the notabilities of France stood before him with 
heads uncovered, repeated the following words : — 

"Gentlemen, I have attended my Parliament in order 
to inform you that, according to the law of my king- 
dom, I shall myself assume its government. I trust 



LOUIH XIV. OF FRANCE. 3^9 

that by the goodness of God it will be with piety and 
justice." 

The chancellor then made a long address, after which 
the oath of allegiance was taken by all the civil and eccle- 
siastical notabilities. The royal procession then returned 
to the gates of the Palais Royal. Thus, a stripling, wiio 
had just completed his thirteenth year, was accepted by 
tlie nobles and by the populace as the absolute and un- 
trammelled sovereign of France. •' He held in his hands, 
virtually, unrestrained by constitution or court, their liber- 
ties, their fortunes, and their live«." Two years later, in 
1G53, the coronation of the king took place at Rheims. 
France at this time was at war with Spain, and, immedi- 
ately after the coronation, the king, then sixteen years of 
age, set out from Rheims to place himself at the head of 
the army. He went to Steuay, on the northeastern fron- 
tier of France. This ancient cit^^ protected by strong 
fortifications, was held by the Prince de Coiide. The 
royal troops were besieging it. There were marches and 
counter-marches, battles and skirmishes. The young king 
displayed intrepidity which secured for him the admira- 
tion of the soldiers. Turenne and Fabert fought the 
battles and gained the victories. Stenay was soon taken, 
and the army of the Prince de Conde driven from all its 
positions. '' There is nothing so successful as success ;" 
and the young king, a hero and a conqueror, returned to 
Paris to enjoy the congratulation of the populace, and to 
offer public thanksgiving in the cathedral of Ndtre Dame. 
Though the king was nominally the absolute ruler of 
France, still there was the influence of his mother, Anne 
of Austria, which up to this time had exerted over him a 
great control ; but this was soon to end. 

Henrietta Maria, the widowed queen of the unfortunate 



340 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

Charles I., was theu residing at the French court. Her 
claugliter Henrietta, as grand-daughter of Henry IV. and 
daughter of Charles I., was entitled, through the purity 
of her royal blood, to the highest consideration at the 
court. When, then, at a ball given for these unfortunate 
guests, the music summoned tlie dancers upon the floor, 
and the king, in total disregard of his young and royal 
cousin, advanced, according to his custom, to lead out the 
Duchesse de Mercann*, the queen was shocked at so gross 
a breach of etiquette, and, rising hastily, she withdrew his 
hand from that of the duchess, and said in a low voice, 
'' You should dauce first, my son, with the princess of 
England." 

Louis replied sullenly, *■' I am not fond of little girls." 
Both Henrietta and her daughter overheard this dis- 
courteous remark. The English queen hastened to Anne 
of Austria, and entreated her not to attempt to constrain 
the wishes of his majesty. The position was exceedingly 
awkward for all parties ; but the proud spirit of Anne of 
Austria was aroused. Resuming her maternal authority, 
she declared that if her niece, the princess of J^ngland, 
remained a spectator at the ball, her son should do the 
same. Thus constrained, the king very ungraciously led 
out the English princess upon tlie floor. After tlie de- 
parture of the guests, the mother and son had their first 
serious quarrel. Severely Anne of Austria rebuked the 
king for his shameful and uncourteous conduct. Louis 
faced his mother haughtily. " Madam, who is lord of 
France, Louis the king or Anne of Austria? Too long," 
he said, " I have been guided by your leading strings. 
Henceforth, I will be my own master ; and do not you, 
madam, trouble yourself to criticise or correct me. I 
am the king." And this was no idle boast; for from 



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tip 
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- - -- -< — fn-y 



ANNE OF AUSTRIA AND CARDINAL MAZARIN. 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 341 

tlitit tearful evening of the queen's ball to the day of his 
death, sixty-one years after, Louis of Bourbon, called 
The Great, ruled as absolute lord over his kinodom of 
France ; and the boy who could say so defiantly, "Hence- 
forth, I will be my own master," was fully equal to that 
other famous declaration of arrogant authority, made years 
after in the full tide of his power, ^^ I am the state!'' 

But Anne of Austria was not the only one destined to 
feel the imperious will of the young sovereign. The Par- 
liament of Paris refused to register certain decrees of the 
king. Louis heard of it while preparing to hunt in the 
woods of Vincennes. He leaped upon his horse, and 
galloped to Paris. At half-past nine o'clock in the morn- 
ing, the king entered the Chamber of Deputies, in full 
hunting dress. He heard mass, and, whip in hand, ad- 
dressed the l)ody : '' Gentlemen of the Parliament, it is 
my will that in future my edicts be registered., and not 
discussed. Should the contrary occur, I shall return, and 
enforce obedience." 

The trumpet sounded, and the king and his courtiers 
galloped back to the forest of Vincennes. The decrees 
were registered. Pai'liament had ventured to try its 
strengtli against Cardinal Mazarin, but did not dare to 
disobey its king. 

The marriage of the king was a matter of much impor- 
tance, and was much talked of. The aspirants for his 
hand and the throne of France were numberless. Maria 
Theresa, the daughter of the king of Spain, was very 
beautiful. vSpain and France were then engaged in petty 
and vexatious hostilities, and a matrimonial alliance would 
secure friendship. 

So negotiations were begun ; and on the 10th of June, 
16G0, Louis, then in the twenty-second year of his age, 



342 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

was joined in marriage, at the Isle of Pheasants, to Maria 
Theresa, infanta of Spain. On the 26th of August, the 
king and his young bride made their public entr}- into 
Paris. Triumphal arches spanned the thoroughfares, gar- 
lands of flowers and hangings of tapestry covered the 
fronts of the houses, and sweet-scented herbs strewed the 
pavements, upon which passed an apparentl}' interminable 
procession of carriages, horsemen, and footmen ; and in 
the midst of the clangor of trumpets, the boom of cannon, 
and the shouts and acclamations of the multitude, came 
the chariot of the young queen, who, radiant and spark- 
ling with brilliant gems, beheld from her loftv height all 
Paris striving to do her honor. By her side rode the 
king. His garments, of velvet richly embroidered with 
gold, and covered with jewels, had been prepared at an 
expense of over a million of dollars. The gorgeousness of 
this gala day lived long in the minds of the splendor- 
loving Parisians. For succeeding weeks and months, 
the court luxuriated in one continued round of gayety. 
'•There was a sound of revelry by night" in the salons 
of the Louvi'e and the Tuileries, while lords and ladies 
trod the floors in the mazy evolutions of the dance. And 
yet, to maintain all this state, all this splendor, all this 
reckless extravagance, thousands of the peasantry of 
France were compelled to live in mud hovels, to wear 
the coarsest garb, to eat the plainest food, while their 
wives and daughters toiled barefoot in the fields. 

The Cardinal Mazarin was old and dying. For eigh- 
teen years he had been virtually monarch of France. 
Avaricious and penurious to the last degree, he had 
amassed enormous wealth. Cursed by the peasantry 
whom he had ground to the earth, hated by the king 
whom he had tried to rule, despised by the court which 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 843 

he had attempted to humble, ou the 9th of March, 1661, 
at his Chateau Mazarin, the cardinal breathed his last. 
From that moment until the day of his death, Louis XIV. 
sat all-powerful upon his throne. And when the president 
of the Ecclesiastical Assembly inquired of the king to 
whom he must hereafter address himself on questions of 
public business, the emphatic and laconic response was, 
'' To myself:' 

M. Fouquet, the Minister of the Treasury, was rolling 
in ill-gotten wealth. His palace of Vaux le Vicomte, 
upon which he had expended fifteen millions of francs, 
eclipsed in splendor the royal palaces of the Tuileries 
and Fontainebleau. The king disliked him. He knew 
he was robbing the treasury, and it was more than his 
self-love could endure, that a subject should live in state 
surpassing that of his sovereign. Fouquet most impru- 
dently invited the king and all the court to a fete at the 
chateau. No step could have been more ill-advised ; for 
the king was little likely to forget, as he looked upon the 
splendors of Vaux le Vicomte, by which St. Germain and 
Fontainebleau were utterly eclipsed, that its owner had 
derived all his wealth from the pul)lic coffers ; and at a 
time, too, when he was himself in need of the funds here 
lavished with such reckless profusion. Every one in 
France, who bore a distinguished name, was bidden to 
the princely festival, which was destined to be commemo- 
rated by La Fontaine and by Benserade, by Felisson and 
by Moli^re. Fouquet met the king at the gates of the 
chateau, and conducted him to the park. Here, notwith- 
standing all he had heard of the splendors of Vaux le 
Vicomte, the king was unprepared for the scene of mag- 
nificence which burst upon his view. The play of the 
fountains, the beauty of the park, and the spbndor of 



344 LOUT!< XIV. OF FRANCE. 

the chateau ^vere long rememl)ered by the guests at this 
princely festival. But to Louis XIV. it was gall and 
wormwood ; and when he took leave of his obsequious 
liost, he remarked bitterly : ''I shall never again, sir, 
venture to invite you to visit me. You would find your- 
self inconvenienced." 

Fouquet felt the keen rebuke, and turned pale. The 
king and his courtiers returned to Paris, lint in the mind 
of Louis XIY. there loomed up distant visions of the 
palaces of Versailles and the great hydraulic machine at 
INIarly. On the 8th of January, 1606, Anne of Austria 
died. Tt was a gloomy winter's night when the remains 
of her who had been both queen and regent of France 
were borne to their last resting-place in the vaults of St. 
Denis. In his previous campaigns, Louis had taken 
Flanders in three months, and Franche-Comte in three 
weeks. Alarmed by these rapid conquests, Holland, 
Switzerland, and Fngland entered into an alliance to 
resist further encroachments, should they be attempted. 
That such a feeble state as Holland should think of limit- 
ing his conquests, aroused the anger of the Grand Mo- 
narqjie. Armies were mustered, munitions of war got 
together, and ships prepared ; and on the 12th of June, 
1072, at the head of an army of one hundred and thirty 
thousand men, Louis crossed the Khine, and made his 
ti-iumphal entry into the city of Ltrecht. Then, indeed, 
Holland trembled ; Amsterdam trembled ; Louis was at 
llic gates. r>ut, rising in the frenzy of despair, the}' 
pierced the dikes, which alone protected the country from 
tiie sea. In rushed the flood, and Amsterdam rose like a 
mighty fortress in the midst of the waves, surrounded by 
slni)s of war, which found depth to flont where ships 
never floated before. Thus suddenlv Louis Xl\'. found 




LOUIS XIV. TAKING LKAVK OF FOUQUET. 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 345 

himself checked in his proud career. Chagrined at see- 
ing his conquest at an end, he left his army under the 
command of Turenne, and returned to his palaces in 
France. 

Louis XIV. had never recovered from the mortification 
he had experienced at the fete at Vaux. He resolved to 
rear a palace so magnificent that no subject, whatever 
might be his resources, could approach it ; so magnificent 
that, like the pyramids of Egypt, it should be a lasting 
monument of the splendor of his reign. In 1664, Louis 
selected Versailles as the site for this stupendous pile of 
marble, which, reared at a cost of thousands of lives, and 
two hundred millions of money, decorated l\v the genius 
of Le Notre, of Mansard, and Le Brun, twenty-five years 
after its commencement, was ready to receive its royal 
occupants ; and, resting proudly upon its foundations, 
presented to admiring Europe the noblest monument of 
the reign of Louis XIV. The splendors of the fetes 
which attended the completion of this palace transformed 
it into a scene of enchantment, and filled all Europe with 
wonder. 

The most magnificent room in the palace, the Gallerie 
des Glaces, called the Grand Gallery of Louis XIV., is 
two hundred and forty-two feet long, thirty-five feet 
broad, and forty-three feet high. German}', Holland, 
Spain, Rome even, bend the knee in the twentj'-seven 
paintings which ornament this grand gallery. But to 
whom do they bow ? Is it to France ? No ; it is to 
Louis XIV. 

" Louis XIV. and his palace not only afforded conver- 
sation for Europe, but their fame penetrated the remote 
corners of Asia. The emperor of Siam sent him an 
embassy. Tln-ee o'pras, high dignitaries of the empire. 



34G TAtJ^Ts XIV. OF FRANCE. 

eiiilit mandarins, and a crowd of servitors landed at 
liii'st, charged with magnilicent presents and a letter 
from the emperor. Arrived at Versailles, they were 
feted witli unheard-of splendor. The day of their public 
audience, tlie fountains played in the gardens ; llowers 
were strewn in the paths ; the sumptuous Gobelin carpets 
were paraded, as well as the richest works of the gold- 
smith. The cortege of ambassadors was received with 
tlie most refined forms of etiquette, and led through 
apartments filled with the court, glittering in diamonds 
and embroidery, and at length reached the end of the 
grand gallery, where Louis XIV., clad in a costume that 
cost twelve millions, stood on a throne of silver placed on 
an estrade elevated nine steps above the floor, and covered 
with (lobelin carpets and costh" vases. Tiiere the Siamese 
prostrated themselves three times, with hands clasped, 
l)efore the ^Majesty of the West, and then lifted their 
eyes to him." 

Louis spent millions on Versailles, millions on his 
pleasures, millions on his pomps, millions in his wars ; he 
lavished gold on his favorites, his generals, and his 
lackeys. And all ended in national ])ankruptc3'. 

Let us, then, in imagination look upon the grand gallerie 
of Louis XIV. during one of those gorgeous fetes which 
attracted the attention of all Europe. Before us is the 
grand salon., with its glittering candelabra and thousand 
brilliant lights, reflected in prismatic rays from the costl>' 
mirrors which line the walls. Tender foot, a i)avement of 
variegated marble, shining and polished as a floor of 
glass ; and overhead the gorgeous frescoes of Le Lrun, 
setting forth in glowing colors the great achievements 
of the Grand Monarque, Tlie highest nobilit}' of the 
realm, the grande noblesse of France, throng this splendid 
gallery. ^ 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 347 

The costly costumes of the cavaliers and the gorgeous 
robes of the Grande Barnes, the waving plumes and 
flashing jewels, all conspire to render the scene of mar- 
vellous magnificence. And now, as the impatient throng 
turn their gaze in the direction of the Salon of War, in 
expectation of the approach of royalty, the folding-doors 
are thrown back, and the stentorian voice of the usher 
resounds throughout the gallery: "His Majesty the 
King ! " and upon the threshold, in a costume resplendent 
with sparkling gems, stands Louis XIV., the Grand 
Moiiarque. As a parterre of blooming flowers bends low 
before a rushing gust of wind, so bow these titled lords 
and ladies 'l)efore his piercing glance ; wiiile Louis, full 
conscious of his kingly majesty, walks slowly, and with 
measured step, all down the long and glittering lines, 
pausing ever and anon to address those whose rank 
entitles them to this inestimable boon. 

" It was not only on festive occasions that Versailles 
w^ore an air of grand gala. It was its habitual aspect. 
At Vaux, nature had contributed quite as nmch as art, to 
the marvellous beauty of the scene. At Versailles, she 
had done nothing, and Louis' pleasure was the greater, in 
that he considered it the unrivalled creation of his own 
genius. Versailles, with its palace, its gardens, its 
fountains, its statues, and water-works, Trianon, and 
ai)pendages, was a work of art to gaze upon with wonder. 
Let us ascend ; for, in whatever place you may be, it 
is necessary to mount, to reach this palace ; at whatever 
point you may stand to look at it, you see its roofs, 
apparently touching the clouds. It crowns the hill like a 
diadem. If you come from Paris, it rises above the 
town, which lies prostrate at the feet of its majesty ; if 
you ai)proach from the park, it lifts itself above the 



348 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

gigantic trees, above the terraces which pile themselves 
up towards it, above the jets of water which surround 
it ; the groves seem to support it upon their tall heads, 
and the whole forest serves as its footstool. Let us 
ascend, for the doors are open ; people are going and 
coming. The ladies smile, the mirrors reflect them, the 
chandeliers light them, the ceilings throw their golden 
coloring upon them. The courtiers stare in the midst of 
the riches of this magnificent dwelling ; but, amid all this 
stir, all these surprises, all these wonders, only one man is 
calm, — this man Louis XI Y. 

" He feels as much at ease in this palace as in a vestment 
made for him ; and, contemplating the work to which his 
pride gave birth, he exclaims, in the fulness of his satis- 
faction, ' Versailles is myself ! ' 

" Yet, upon a bright spring day, or soft summer 
evening, when Louis, disposed for one of those long 
promenades he was accustomed to take sometimes twice 
a day, descended to the gardens from the grand terrace 
of the palace, followed by his numerous court, the coup 
d'oeil from a distance must have been charmingly effec- 
tive. And, when enlivened by sauntering, chatting, 
flirting, laughing groups of picturesquely dressed ladies 
and gentlemen of the court, — a numerous retinue of 
lackeys following, no less resplendent in dress than their 
masters, — the admirable fitness of the gardens and 
grounds of Yersailles for the purpose which Louis, no 
doubt, had in his mind when the designs were approved, 
must have been very striking. In the centre of this 
throng of feathers and swords, satins and laces, flashing 
jewels, fans and masks, solemnly paced the magnificent 
Louis, with the air of lord of the universe, monarch of all 
he surveyed, and of all who surveyed him ; for his courtiers 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 34n 

lived onh' in the light of his countenance. Yet the 
countenance of this god was grandly cold, serene, and 
unchangeable, as that of any of the marble deities that 
presided over his fountains. It was no mean advantaoe 
to him that nature had kindly exalted him, at least, three 
inches above almost every other man of his court. The 
French were not generally a fine race of men ; but the 
dress of the period — tlie high heels, the wig, the lofty 
plume, and the looped-up, broad-brimmed hat — gave to 
the grandees an appearance of height, which, as a rule, 
thev had not. And above them all towered their king, 
like Jupiter, in Olympus, in the midst of the inferior gods, 
or as the sun, with lesser lights revolving around him, 
and shining only in the refulgence of liis rays. 

" Red-heeled boots, slashed doublets, and flowing wigs, 
cordeliers of pearls, Moorish fans, masques, patches and 
paint, monumental head-dresses, and the thousand other 
items indispensable to the toilets of the lords and ladies 
of the Louis XIY. period, have a charmingly picturesque 
effect, seen through the long vista of two centuries, and 
heightened by the glamour of la grande x>olitesse^ et la 
grande gala,nterie of the Grand Moiiarque and his court. 
Life seems to have been with them, one long fancy-dress 
ball, a never-ending carnival, a perpetual whirl, an end- 
less succession of fetes and carousals." 

Louis XIV. now found nearly all Europe in arms 
against him. He sent twenty thousand men, under 
Marshal Turenne, to encounter the forces of the emperor 
of Germany ; and fort}' thousand, under the Prince de 
Cond^, to assail William, prince of Orange. In his 
defence of the frontiers of the Rhine, Turenne acquired 
a reputation which has made his name famous in military- 
annals. With twenty thousand men, he defeated and 



850 LOUL"^ XIV. OF FRANCE. 

dispersed the Imperial army of seventy thousand ; and it 
adds not a little to his celebrity, that, following his own 
judgment, he achieved the victory in direct opposition to 
the orders from the minister of war. A merciless war- 
rior, he allowed no consideration of humanity to interfere 
with his military operations. He laid in ashes the beauti- 
ful country of the Palatinate, embracing, on both sides of 
the Rhine, about sixteen hundred square miles, and having 
a population of over three hundred thousand souls, in 
order that the armies of his enemies might be deprived 
of sustenance ; while tlie wail of widows and orphans 
rose over the smouldering ruins of their dwellings, over 
the bleak and barren fields. 

On the 27th of June, 1675, a cannon ball struck 
Turenne, and closed, in an instant, his earthly career. 
Few men have ever lived who have caused such wide- 
spread misery. For two 3^ears the war continued, with 
sometimes varying success, but with unvarying blood and 
misery. At last, on the 14th of August, 1678, peace, 
the peace of Nimegeun, was made. Louis XIV. dictated 
the terms. 

Now, at the height of his grandeur, having enlarged 
his dominions by the addition of Franche-Comte, Dun- 
kirk, and half of Flanders, worshipped by his courtiers 
as a demi-god, the court of France conferred upon him, 
with imposing solemnities, the title of Louis le Grcutd. 
In 1685, the Queen, Maria Theresa, breathed her last. 
Amiable, unselfish, warm-hearted, from the time of her 
marriage she devoted herself to the promotion of her 
husband's happiness. His neglect caused her to shed 
many tears. The king could not be insensible to her 
many virtues, and perhaps remorse, mingled with the 
emotions which compelled him to weep bitterly' over 




UHATH OF TUKKNNE. 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 351 

her death, caused him to exclaim, as he gazed upon the 
lifeless remains, " Kind and forbearing friend, this is 
the first sorrow you have caused me throughout twenty 
years." For ten days the royal corpse lay in state at 
Versailles, and perpetual masses were performed for the 
soul of the departed. On the day of the funeral, the 
king, in the insane endeavor to obliterate from his mind 
all thoughts of death and burial, ordered out the hounds, 
and plunged into the excitement of the chase. His horse 
pitched the monarch over his head into a ditch of 
stagnant water, dislocating one of his shoulders. 

In 1685, also died Jean Baptiste Colbert, the king's 
minister of finance. As superintendent of buildings, arts, 
and manufactures, he had enlarged the Tuileries and the 
Louvre, completed gorgeous Versailles, reared the mag- 
nificent edifice of the Invalides, and founded the Gobelins. 
As minister of finance, he had furnished the king with the 
money he needed for his expensive wars and luxurious 
indulgence. Now old, forgotten, exhausted by incessant 
labor, he was on his dying bed. The heav}' taxes he had 
imposed upon the people rendered him unpopular. The 
curses and imprecations of a starving peasantry rose 
around his dying couch. The king condescended in cour- 
tesy to send a messenger inquiring after the condition of 
his minister, but the dying sufferer turned awa}^ his face, 
saying, " I will not hear that man spoken of again. If 
for God I had done what I have for him, I should have 
been saved ten times over. What my fate now may be, I 
know not." 

And so worn out by toll, anxiety, and grief, he died. 
On the following day, without any marks of honor, his 
remains were conveyed to the church of St. Eustache. 

Genoa had oflfended the king by giving assistance to 



352 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

the Algerines. He seized, by a lettre de cachet^ the 
Genoese ambassador, and plunging him into one of tlie 
dungeons of the Bastile, sent a fleet of fifty vessels to 
chastise those who had offended him, with terrible severity. 
On the 19th of May, 1G84, the ships entered the harbor 
of Genoa, and immediately opened upon the city a terrific 
fire, so that in a few hours, a large portion of those mar- 
ble edifices, which had given to the city the name of 
" Genoa the Superb," were crumbled into powder. Tlie 
city was threatened with total destruction, and in terror 
the authorities implored the clemency of the conqueror. 
Haughtily the Grand Monarqve demanded that the doge 
of Genoa, and four of his principal ministers, should re- 
pair to the [)alace of Versailles, and humbly implore his 
pardon. Utterly powerless, the doge was compelled to 
submit to these humiliating terms. 

On the loth of May, 1685, Louis ordered his throne to 
be placed at the end of the grand gallery, by the side of 
the "Salon of Peace." The doge entered with four 
senators Genoa had sent to accompany him. He was 
dressed in red velvet, witli a cap of the same. Tn order 
to preserve all the dignity his misfortune allowed him, 
the doge remained covered until he entered the presence 
of the king. The king allowed the princes to remain 
covered during the audience. The doge discharged his 
sad mission with a firmness that created astonishment. 
His bearing was more impressive than his discourse. A 
few days after he attended the levee, dined with the king, 
was shown the park and all the fountains, and was present 
at a ball given in the grand apartment. Afterwards he 
had his audience of leave-taking, and when one of the 
senators asked liim what surprised him most at Xvv- 
sailles, he replied with an air of more chagrin than usual, 




JEAN HAPTISTE COLBERT. 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 353 

"At seeing myself there." The doge and senators did 
not stay long in France. They saw in haste the wonders 
shown them, and then returned to Genoa. Arrived at 
home, they talked over the things they had seen. One 
senator spoke of the dazzling spectacles, the vast apart- 
ments, the sumptuous ornaments ; and said no mind was 
powerful enough to carry away the remembrance of all the 
riches of the palace, its paintings, its statues, its tapestry, 
its ceilings, its gold, and its marble. The doge replied, 
there was more than its exterior magnificence, and luxury 
of its interior ; that the palace was the whole French 
monarch}'. You read the origin of the monarch}^ in the 
chateau built by Louis XIII. The architects wished to 
pull it down ; the king replied, that, if it would not last, 
they must take it down, but reconstruct it on its first plan. 
He wished the work of his father to remain, to contrast 
with the edifice he was going to erect. One part of the 
building only projects immensely in the long outline, 
that is where the master dwells. The king walks alone 
in the first rank, the courtiers follow, and support the 
train of the royal mantle. If you mount by the grand 
staircase, you find a suite of immense salons^ covered 
with beautiful paintings. The Salon of Plent}', then 
Venus, then Diana, then Mars, then Mercury, and then 
Apollo. Of what use are they? The master does not 
inhabit them. But go on farther, pass through empty 
galleries, you will at length find his apartments. All this 
suite of magnificent salons, all these galleries, serve as 
an ante-chamber only to the place in which he dwells. 
Mars and -Apollo, gods formerly, are nothing now but 
lackeys to the king of France. 

In the year 1598, King Henry IV., feeling the need of 
the support of the Protestants to protect his kingdom from 



854 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

the perils by which it was surrounded, and having himself 
been educated a Protestant, had granted to the Protestants 
the world-renowned edict of Nantes. B\' this edict, Pi'ot- 
estants were allowed libert}^ of conscience ; were per- 
mitted, in certain designated places, to hold public worship ; 
were declared to be eligible to offices of state, and in cer- 
tain places, were allowed to publish books. Louis XIV. 
was a Catholic, a bigoted Catholic ; hoping in some 
measure to atone for his sins, by liis supreme devotion to 
the interests of the church, and while assuring the Prot- 
estant powers of Europe that he would continue to I'espect 
the edict of Nantes, he commenced issuing a series of or- 
dinances in direct o[)position to that contract. In 1680 
he excluded Protestants from all public offices, whatsoever. 
A l*rotestant could not be employed as a i)liysician, 
lawyer, apothecary, bookseller, printer, or even as a 
nurse. 

In some parts of the kingdom, the Protestants com- 
posed nearly the entire population. Here it was impossi- 
ble to enforce the atrocious decree. Kiots and bloodshed 
followed. Affairs went from bad to worse, and on the 
18th of October, 1685, the king, yielding to the wishes of 
his confessor and other high dignitaries of the Church, 
signed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In this 
act of revocation, it was declared that, "the exercise of 
the Protestant worship should nowhere be tolerated in the 
realm of France. All Protestant pastors were ordered to 
leave the kingdom within fifteen days, under pain of 
beins sent to the o-allevs. Parents were forbidden to in- 
struct their children in the Protestant relio-ion. Everv 
child in the kingdom was to be baptized and educated b}^ 
a Catholic priest. All Protestants who had left France, 
were ordered to return within four months, under penalty 




REVOCATlc;.N OK THE EDICT OF NANTES. 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 355 

of confiscation of their possessions. Any Protestant man 
or woman who should attempt to emigrate, incurred the 
penalty of imprisonment for life." 

This infamous ordinance caused an amount of misery 
which can never be gauged, and inflicted upon the pros- 
perity of France the most terrible blow it had ever re- 
ceived. Only one year after the revocation, Marshal 
Vauban wrote, " France has lost one hundred thousand 
inhabitants, sixty millions of coined money, nine thousand 
sailors, twelve thousand disciplined soldiers, six hundred 
ottlcers, and her most flourishing manufactures." 

The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes was the great 
blot upon the reign of Louis XIV. From that hour the 
fortunes of the ' Grand Monarque began manifestly to 
decline. 

Louvois, minister of war, had for a long time been all- 
powerful at court. Through his influence, the king had 
been induced to revoke the Edict of Nantes, and to order 
the utter devastation of the Palatinate. But that influ- 
ence was upon the wane. The king had become weary 
of his haughty assumptions, and the conflagration of the 
Palatinate had raised a cr}' of indignation that even he 
could not fail to hear. Treves had escaped the flames. 
Louvois solicited an order to burn it. The king refused. 
Louvois insolently gave the order himself, and entering 
the royal presence, exclaimed calmly, " Sire, I have com- 
manded the burning of Treves, in order that I might 
spare your Majesty the pain of issuing such an edict." 

Louis was furious ; and springing up, with flashing- 
eyes, forgetful of all the restraints of etiquette, he seized 
the tongs from the fireplace, and would have broken the 
head of his minister, had not Madame de Maintenon 
rushed between them. The king despatched a messenger 



356 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

to countermand the order, and declared that if but a 
single house were burned, the liead of the minister should 
be the forfeit. Treves was saved. 

On one occasion, when Louis XIV. went to examine 
the progress of the building of the Trianon, accompanied 
bv Louvois, he remarked that a particular window was 
out of proportion, and did not harmonize with the rest ; 
but the minister, jealous of his dignity as controller of 
the roj^al works, would not admit the objection, but main- 
tained that it was similar to the others. 

The king desired Le Notre to declare his opinion as to 
the size of the disputed window. Le Notre, fearful of 
offending either the monarch or his minister, endeavored 
to give an evasive answer. Upon wliicli, Louis com- 
manded hira to measure it carefully, and he was reluc- 
tantly compelled to obey. The result of the trial proved 
that the king was right, the window was too small ; and 
the monarch had no sooner ascertained the fact, than he 
turned angrily to his minister, exclaiming, " M. Louvois, 
I am weary of your obstinacy. It is fortunate that I 
myself have superintended the work of building, or the 
facade would have been ruined." 

As this scene had taken place not only in the presence 
of the workmen, but of all the courtiers who followed the 
king upon his promenade, Louvois was stung to the 
quick ; and on entering his own house, he exclaimed 
furiously, "I am lost if I do not find some occupation for 
a man who can interest himself in such trifles. There is 
nothing l)ut a war which can divert him from his building, 
and war he shall have. I will soon make him abandon 
his trowel." 

He kept his word : and Europe was once more plunged 
into a general war, because a window had been made a 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 357 

few inches too narrow, and a king had convicted a minis- 
ter of error. 

In 1691, the French were besieging Mons. The 
haughty minister, uniutimidated even by the menace of 
the tongs, ventured to countermand an order which the 
king had issued. The lowering brow of the monarch 
convinced him that his ministerial reign was soon to close. 
The health of the minister began rapidly to fail. A few 
subsequent interviews wdth the king satisfied him that his 
disgrace and ruin were decided upon ; and about the mid- 
dle of June, meeting the monarch in his council-chamber, 
although he was unusually complaisant, Louvois so thor- 
oughly understood him, that he retired to his residence in 
utter despair. He ordered that his son, the Marquis de 
Barbesieux, might be requested to follow him to his 
chamber. In five minutes the summons w^as obe3^ed, but 
it was too late ; for when the marquis entered the room, 
his father had already expired. Louvois had judged 
rightly, for the king had already drawn up the lettre de 
cachet which was to consign him to the oubliettes of the 
Bastile. 

"Civil war was now also desolating unhappy France. 
The Protestants, bereft of their children, robbed of their 
property, driven from their homes, dragged to the gal- 
lows, plunged into dungeons, broken upon the wheel, 
hanged upon scaffolds, rose in several places in insurrec- 
tionary bands ; and the man who was thus crushing be- 
neath the iron heel of his armies the quivering hearts of 
the Palatinate, and who was drenching his own realms 
with tears and blood, was clothed in purple, and faring 
sumptuously, and reclining upon the silken sofas of 
Marly and Versailles." 

On the 1st of November, 1700, Charles II. of Spain 



358 LOUHS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

died, having no heirs. Urged b}' the Pope, he left the 
throne to the children of tlie dauphin of France. As the 
duke de Bourgoyne was direct heir to the throne of 
France, the dauphin's second son, the duke d'Anjou, was 
proclaimed king of Spain, under tlie title of Philip V. 
On the 14th of tiie montii, Louis XI\\ summoned the 
Spanish ambassador to an audience at Versailles. The 
king presented his grandson to the minister, saying, 
"•This, sir, is the duke d'Anjou, whom you may salute 
as your king." Tiien, contrary' to his custom, he ordered 
the folding doors of his cabinet to be thrown back, and 
the crowd of courtiers assembled in the grand gallery 
l)Oured into the apartment. 

The Spanish ambassador dropped upon his knee ])efore 
the young prince witii expressions of profound homage ; 
while the king, embracing the neck of liis grandson with 
his left arm, and pointing to him with his right hand, pre- 
sented him to the assembled court, exclaiming, " Gen- 
tlemen, this is the king of Spain. His birth calls him to 
the crown. The late king has recognized his rii>:ht bv his 
will. All the nation desires his succession, and has en- 
treated it at my hands. It is the will of heaven, to which 
I conform with satisfaction." 

To his grandson he added, " Be a good Spaniard, but 
never forget that yon were born a Frenchman. Carefully 
maintain the union of the two nations. Thus only can 
3^ou render them both happy." 

Preparations were immediately made for the departure 
of the boy-king to take possession of the Spanish throne. 
The Grand Monarqne regarded it as a signal stroke of 
policy, and a great victory on his part, that notwithstand- 
ing the remonstrances of other nations, he had placed a 
French Bourbon prince upon the throne of Spain. He 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 359 

saw the domain of France extending far southward to the 
Straits of Gibraltar. 

"Henceforth," exclaimed Louis XIV., exultingly, 
" there are no more P^^enees ! " 

Louis XIV. reigned everywhere, — over his people, 
over his age, often over Europe, —but nowhere did he 
reign so completely as over his court. Never were the 
wishes, the defects, and the vices of a man so completely 
a law to other men, as at the court of Louis XIV. durino- 
the whole period of his long Hfe. When near to him in 
the palace at Versailles, men lived, hoped, trembled, 
everywhere else in France, even at Paris, men vegetated. 
The existence of the nobles was concentrated in the court 
about the person of the king ; and so abject was their 
submission, that Louis XIV. looked on all sides for a 
great lord, and found about him only courtiers. 

When the king learned that certain of the nobility 
affected to despise the plebian genius of the great drama- 
tist, Moliere, he invited the comedian to his table ; and 
when at the grande entree the nobles thronged the apart- 
ment, he turned to them haughtily, exclaiming, " Gentle- 
men of the court, you see me breakfasting with Moliere, 
whom my nobles do not consider worthy of their notice." 
It was enough. From that moment the great dramatist 
found all the nobility of France at his feet. 

Never did man give with better grace than Louis XIV., 
or augment so much in this way the price of his benefits. 
Never did man sell to better profit his words, even his 
smiles, — nay, his looks. 

Never did disobliging words escape him ; and if he had 
to blame, to reprimand, or correct, which was very rare, 
it was nearly always with goodness, never with anger or 
severity. Never was man so naturally polite, or of a 



360 LOUISi XIV. OF FRANCE. 

politeness so measured, so graduated, so adapted, to per- 
son, time, and place. Towards women his politeness was 
without parallel. Never did he pass the humblest petti- 
coat without raising his hat. For ladies he took his hat 
off completely, but to a greater or less extent ; for titled 
people half off, holding it in his hand, or against his ear, 
some instants. He took it off for the princes of the blood 
as for the ladies. If he accosted ladies, he did not cover 
himself until he had quitted them. His reverences, more 
or less marked, but always light, were incomparable for 
their grace and manner. As, after the battle of Seneff, 
fought Aug. 11, 1674, against William of Orange, Mon- 
sieur le Prince, le Grand Conde, was walking slowly, 
from the effects of gout, up the grand staircase at Ver- 
sailles, he exclaimed to the king, who awaited him upon 
the landing above, " Sire, I crave your majesty's pardon, 
if I keep you waiting ; " to which Louis replied, " Do not 
hurry, my cousin ; no one could move more quickly who 
was so loaded with laurels as you are." It was the lan- 
guage of the court; and again, when in May, 1706, Mar- 
shal Villeroi returned worsted at the battle of Ramillies, 
in bis encounter with Marlborough and Prince Eugene, 
the Grand Monarque gave utterance to one of those deli- 
cate remarks he knew so well how to make, and which 
sounded almost like a compliment: "Ah, Monsieur le 
Marshal," exclaimed the king, when he presented himself 
at Versailles, " at our age one h no longer fortunate." 

" The king loved air and exercise very much, as long 
as he could make use of them. He had excelled at danc- 
ing, at tennis, and at mall. On horseback he was admir- 
able, even at a late age. He liked to see everything done 
with grace and address. To acquit yourself well or ill 
before him was a merit or a fault. He was very fond of 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 



361 



shooting, and there was not a better or more graceful shot 
than he. He was very fond, also, of stag-himtino-, but in 
a caUche, since he broke his arm while hunting at Fon- 
tainebleau, immediately after the death of the Queen. He 
rode alone in a species of " box," drawn by four little 
horses, and drove himself with an accuracy and address 
unknown to the best coachmen. He liked splendor, mao-- 
nificence, and profusion in everything; you pleased him 
if you shone through the brilliancy of your houses, your 
clothes, your table, and your equipages. As for the king 
himself, nobody ever approached his magnificence." 

Old age had crept fast upon Louis XIV. For seventy- 
two years he had proudly sat upon the throne of his ances- 
tors ; but the time was near at hand when he must lay aside 
his sceptre and his crown. Still the more deeply he be- 
came conscious of his physical weakness, the more deter- 
mined and extraordinary were his efforts to preserve intact 
the interests of the state. 

Richard, in his war-tent on the bloody field of Bosworth, 
never contemplated a train of more appalling shadows 
than those evoked by the memory of Louis XIV., as he 
sat, supported by cushions and pillowed upon velvet, in 
his sumptuous apartment. Maria Theresa, the Queen ; the 
grand-dauphin; his son, the duke de Bourgoyne ; and 
last of all, the duke de Berri, the sole prop to that throne 
which must soon be empty, dead, all dead, save a frail 
infant, — such were the thoughts that crowded upon his 
last reveries ; and well might the poor old man in his 
solitary moments bend down that proud head which had 
no longer strength to bear a crown, and laying aside the 
arrogance of those years in which he had assumed the 
bearing of a demi-god, confess to his own heart that he 
was but human. 



862 LOUI!< XIV. OF FRAXrE. 

On the third of May, 1715, the king rose at an early 
hour, to witness an eclipse of the sun. Strange coinci- 
dence that he, who had taken for his emblem a rising sun, 
should witness the eclipse of that brilliant orb, while he 
himself was sinking .toward the grave. In the evening- 
he retired early, complaining of extreme fatigue. The 
advanced age of the king and his many infirmities ren- 
dered even a slight indisposition alarming. The report 
spread rapidly that the king was dangerously sick. The 
foreign ambassadors promptly despatched the news to 
their respective courts, — a circumstance which soon 
reached the ears of the monarch, who, indignant at such 
indecent precipitancy, and to prove, not only to the court, 
but to all Europe, that he was still every inch a king, com- 
manded that preparations should forthwith be commenced 
for a grand review of the household troops at Marly. On 
the twentieth of June this magnificent exhibition took 
l)lace, when for tlie last time the troops of gendarmes and 
light-horse, in their splendid uniforms, defiled before the 
terrace of Marly ; which they had no sooner done, than 
the monarch appeared at the principal entrance of the 
palace, habited in the costume of his earlier years ; and, 
descending the marble steps, mounted his horse, and for 
four long hours sat proudly in his saddle, under the eyes 
of those foreign envois who had announced his approach- 
ing death to their sovereigns. It was the expiring effort 
of his pride. During the whole of the last year of his life, 
it had been the study of Louis XIV. to deceive himself, 
and, above all, to deceive others, as to the extent of the 
physical debility induced by his great age. He rose at a 
late hour, in order to curtail the fatigues of the day ; re- 
ceived his ministers, and even dined, in his bed ; and 
once, having prevailed upon himself to leave it, passed 



LOUIS XTV. OF FRAXrE. 363 

several hours in succession in his cushioned clmir. In 
vain his physician urged upon him the necessity of exer- 
cise, in order to counteract his tendency to revery and 
somnolency ; the swollen state of his feet and ankles ren- 
dered it impossible for him to rise from his chair without 
severe pain, and he never attempted to do so until all his 
attendants had left the room, lest they should perceive 
the state of weakness to which he was reduced. Great, 
therefore, had l:»een the effort we have described, when 
the monarch had for a time conquered the man, and where 
pride had supplied the place of strength. The only exer- 
cise which he ultimately consented to take was in the 
magnificent gardens of Versailles, where he was wheeled 
through the stately avenues, which he had himself planted, 
in a l)ath-chair; a prey to pain, which was visibly de- 
l)icted upon his countenance, but which he supported with 
cold and silent dignity, too haughty to complain. The 
king grew daily worse. The disease was mortal, and he 
felt he was beyond the power of human aid. Bitterly 
Louis XIV. upon his death-bed expiated the faults and 
excesses of his past life. He wept over the profligacy of 
iiis youth, deplored the madness of 4iis ambition, by which 
he had brought mourning into every corner of his king- 
dom. On the twenty-sixth of August, the king com- 
manded ail the great dignitaries and officers of the 
household to meet in his apartment, and addressed them 
in a firm voice, saying, •'Gentlemen, I die in the faith 
and obedience of the Church. I desire your pardon for 
the bad example which I have set 3^ou. I have greatly to 
thank 3^ou for the manner in which you have served me, 
and request from you the same zeal and the same fidelity 
toward the dauphin. Farewell, gentlemen ; I feel that 
this parting has affected not only myself, but you also. 



364 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 

Forgive me. I trust thut 3^011 will sometimes tliink of me 
wlieii I am gone." 

How sad the scene ! " The gray -haired king, half- 
sitting, half-l3ing, in his gorgeous bed, whose velvet hang- 
ings, looped back with their heavy ropes and tassels of 
gold, were the laborious offering of the pu[)ils of St. Cyr ; 
the groups of princes in their gorgeous costumes, dispersed 
over the vast apartment ; the gilded cornices, the priceless^ 
the tapestried hangings, the richh-carpeted floor, the 
waste of luxury on every side, the pride of man's intellect 
and of man's strength ; and in the midst, decay and death, 
a palsied hand and a dimmed eye." For a few moments 
there was unbroken silence. The king then requested his 
great-grandchild, who was to be his successor, to be 
brought to him. A cushion was placed at the bedside, 
and the little prince, clinging to the hand of his gover- 
ness, knelt upon it. Louis XIV. gazed for a moment 
upon him with mingled anxiety and tenderness, and then 
said impressively, " My child, you are about to become 
a great king ; do not imitate me, either in my taste for 
building, or in my love of war. Endeavor, on the con- 
trary, to live in peace with the neighboring nations ; ren- 
der to God all that you owe him, and cause his name to 
be honored b}' 3'our subjects. Strive to relieve the bur- 
dens of your people, in which I have been unfortunate 
enough to fail ; and never forget the gratitude that 3^ou 
owe to Madame de Ventadour." 

Louis XV. caused these last words, addressed to him 
bv his grandfather, to be inscribed on vellum, and 
attached to the head-cloth of his bed. Words to which 
his life for fifty years was but a hollow mockery. The 
following days were ones of agony to the expiring king. 
His intervals of consciousness were rare and brief. Mor- 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 



365 



tification extended rapidly, and toward midday, on the 
31st of August, his condition became so much exas- 
perated that it was found necessary to perform the service 
for the dying without further delay. The mournful cere- 
mony aroused him from his lethargy, and his voice was 
heard, audibly and clearly, mingled with those of the 
priests. At the termination of the prayers, he reco<r- 
nized the Cardinal de Rohan, and said calmly, "These 
are the last favors of the Church." He then repeated 
several times, " Nunc et in liora mortis'' ; and finally he 
exclaimed, with earnest fervor, " O, my God, come to my 
aid, and hasten to help me ! " He never spoke again ; 
his head fell back upon the pillow, one long-drawn ligh,' 
and all was over. The spirit of Louis XIV. had passed 
the earthly veil, and entered the vast unknown. An 
immense concourse had assembled in the marble court 
at Versailles, anticipating the announcement of his death. 
The moment he breathed his last, the captain of the body- 
guard approached the great balcony, threw open the 
massive windows, and, looking down upon the multitude 
below, raised his truncheon above his head, broke it in 
the centre, and, throwing the fragments down into the 
court-yard, he cried sadly, " The king is dead !" Then, 
instantly seizing another staff from the hands of an 
attendant, he waved it joyfully above his head, and 
shouted triumphantly, " Long live the king, Louis XV. !" 
And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately- 
deserted apartment answered as buoyantly, " Long live 
the king ! " 

Thus, on the 1st of September, 1715, in his palace, 
at Versailles, died "one of the world's most powerful 
monarchs, Louis of Bourbon, Louis the Great, Louis the 
God-given, Louis the Grand Monarque^ Louis the worn- 



800 LOUIS XI V. OF FRANCE 

out, unloving, and unloved old man, of magnificent 
Versailles." And when Massillon, called to preach the 
funeral sermon of Louis XIV., as he looked upon the 
magnificent . draperies and insignia of ro^^alty around 
him, and thought of the title the deceased king had 
borne during his life, he began his discourse, with the 
simple and striking w^ords, which amazed the pleasure- 
loving courtiers of Versailles, '" Ood alone is great, my 
brothers." And now, after two hundred years have 
rolled away, at this present time, in this nineteenth 
century, after the scaffold of Louis XVI., after the 
downfall of Napoleon, after the exile of Charles X., 
after the flight of Louis Phili})pe, after the French 
Revolution, — in a word, that is to say, after this renewal, 
complete, absolute, prodigious, of principles, opinions, 
situations, influences, and facts ; standing upon the ter- 
race of magnificent Versailles, and looking upon those 
scenes, where, for so many years, he was the central 
light and figure, — we bid a last adieu to Louis XIV., 
the Grand Monarqae, greatest of all the Bourbons. 



PETER THE GREAT. 367 



PETER THE GREAT. 

A.D. 1672-1725. 

" No true and permanent fame can be founded, except in labors 
which promote the happiness of mankind." 

Charles Sumner. 

ONE thousfiiid 3'ears ago, Russia was inhabited by 
disunited, Slavonic tribes, who were frequently at 
war witli each other. Then Scandinavian tribes were 
called in, and the Russian nation grew from the two 
centres of Novgorod and Kief. Christianity was intro- 
duced from Constantinople. Trade had been commenced 
with the west of Europe, when the whole country was 
over-run by the Mongols and Tartars, and the people 
were obliged to submit to their 3'oke. The country had 
been divided into various Russian states, which were not 
ruled directly by the Mongols, but became vassals. 
These states were each governed by its own prince, 
who were all subject to Tartary. One state after another 
was at length swallowed up by the Grand Duchy of 
Moscow, and the autocracy was established ; which, after 
freeing Russia from the Mongol yoke, reached its highest 
development, under Ivan the Terrible, in 1533. The 
death of Ivdn gave a blow to autocracy, and brought the 
nobility into power. In 1598, nearly the whole of the 
Russian people were reduced to serfdom, which was an 
institution then first legally established. Then came 
a period, called the Troublous Time, when pretender 



368 PETER THE GREAT. 

vied with pretender, find the son of the king of Poland 
was crowned Czar of Moscow. Finally, the Poles were 
turned out, and young Michael Romdnof was elected 
Czar. Then followed continual wars with Poland and 
Sweden. In the reign of Alexis, in 1645-76, an arbitrary 
government was formed. Henceforth, the Czar managed 
all matters, both great and small, according to his own 
will and pleasure. The Czar Alexis was of a gentle 
and amiable nature, and was called by his subjects, 
" The most Debonnair." But his good qualities, in the 
end, rendered him one of the worst sovereigns of Russia ; 
for he was entirely in the hands of wicked men, who, as 
his favorites, exercised all the power, and, in realit}', 
governed the country. 

Then arose the dissent in the Russian Church. The 
Patriarch, Nikon, undertook the correction of all tlie 
printed and manuscript copies of the liturgy ; and by a 
decree of an Ecclesiastical Council, the corrected books 
were ordered to be the only ones used, and the command 
was given that all others should be destro3'ed. This 
measure excited the greatest hostility. It seems strange 
that passions should be roused, and people be found 
willing to suffer mart3^rdom, for such seemingly unim- 
portant questions, — as to whether the name of Jesus 
should be pronounced, " Isus," or " Yisus " ; whether, 
in a certain portion of the morning service, the word 
"Hallelujah" should be repeated twice or thrice; and 
whether the si^jn of the cross should be made with the 
two fore-fingers extended, or with the fore-fingers and the 
thumb, as denoting the Trinity. But such was the case ; 
and so great was the commotion, that arms were resorted to 
by the Court, at Moscow, to enforce these innovations ; and 
some of the most obstinate opposers were even executed. 



PETER THE GREAT. 369 

In the cast of Russia, the inhabitants of whole villaoes 
shut themselves up in their houses, and setting fire to 
them, perished in the flames, rather than accept a new, 
and what they called a diabolical, religion. The o-6vern- 
nient was at length successful, however, and revised 
service-books w^ere introduced into the churches. 

At the present day, nearly one-half of the Russians be- 
long in spirit, if not openly, to the Dissenters ; and the 
reconciliation betw^een them and the official church has onlv 
been accomplished by relaxing the rigor of the laws of per- 
secution. During the reign of Alexis, the father of Peter 
the Great, much importance was attached to the length 
and fulness of the Czar's title. An accidental omission of 
a single word or letter from this long and cumbrous offi- 
cial title was considered an act of personal disrespect t(^ 
the prince, almost equal to high treason, and was punished 
far more severely than many terrible crimes. The shortest 
title of the Czar that could possibly be used, and which it 
was necessary to repeat every time that the Czar's name 
was mentioned in document, petition, or discourse, was 
" The Great Lord Czar and Grand Duke Alexis Micht4ilo- 
vitch, of all Great and Little and White Russia Autocrat." 
The complete title contained one hundred and twenty-three 
words, which we have not space to give. Alexis, having 
lost his first wife, in 1669, married for his second wife 
Natalia Naryshkin, who was a ward of Matveief, the 
chief minister of the Czar. Their meeting was in this 
manner : One evening, when the Czar was at Matv^ief's 
house, the wife and pretty ward of the prime minister 
came into the room, bringing the usual refreshments of 
cups of vodka, the caviare, and smoked fish, which are 
eaten by the Russians before dinner or supper. The wid- 
owed Czar was struck bv the pretty face of the tall, 



370 PETER THE GREAT. 

shapely, black-eyed girl, and, on going away, said to 
Matveief that he would find a bridegroom for his pretty 
ward. It was the custom, when the Czar was in want of 
a bride, for all the Russian maidens, of suitable position 
and beauty, to assemble at the palace on a certain day, 
that a bride might be chosen from their number for the 
prince. AYord was now sent to Natalia Naryshkin to 
appear with the other maidens, and it was soon reported 
that she was the chosen bride. The daughters of the 
Czar objected to so young a step-mother ; but, in spite of 
opposition, both political and from his family, Alexis was 
married to Natalia, on the 1st of February, 1671. The 
Czar had several daughters of his first wife still living, 
and two sons, Theodore, who was very infirm and sickly, 
and John, or Ivdu, wdio was almost blind, and had a defect 
of speech, and was nearly an idiot. But his favorite 
child was Peter, the son of his second wife, Natalia, who 
was born June 9, 1672. The birth of Peter was hailed 
with great joy, and Alexis ordered a most splendid cere- 
monial in honor of the event Then came the christen- 
ing. The ceremony was performed at the Cathedral of 
the Annunciation ; and the infant Peter was borne to the 
church in a cradle placed on wheels, while the priest most 
venerated for his sanctity sprinkled the path with holy 
water. The next day after the christening the feast 
occurred. The expense and account books, which have 
been preserved, show that on this occasion the tables were 
loaded with large pieces of sugar-work, representing 
eagles, swans, and other birds, larger than life ; also rep- 
resentations of the Muscovite arms and a model of the 
Kremlin, the palace of the Czar, and also a large fortress 
with cannon. One of the first ceremonies after the l)irth 
of a Russian prince was what was called " taking his meas- 



PETER THE GREAT. 371 

lire." The measure of Peter was taken on the third day 
after his birth, and was performed in this manner: a 
board of either cypress or linden-wood was cut the exact 
length and breadth of the child, which in his case was 
nineteen and a quarter inches long and five and a quarter 
inches broad. Upon this board a picture, representing the 
Holy Trinity, together with the Apostle Peter, was painted 
b}' a famous artist. This birth-measure of Peter was 
carefully preserved, and now hangs over his tomb in the 
Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, in the fortress at St. 
Petersburg. A nurse and governess were then selected 
for the infant Peter ; and he had a special staff of dwarfs 
who should be his companions and servants. The infant 
prince had his own apartments, some of which were hung 
with leather, stamped with silver, and others with fine red 
cloth ; while the furniture was covered with crimson, em- 
broidered with blue and yellow, and the walls and ceilings 
were decorated with paintings. 

The curious books of accounts enumerate some of the 
articles ordered for him in the first years of his childhood. 
Among them were "cradles covered with gold-embroi- 
dered Turkish velvet ; sheets and pillows of white silk ; 
coverlets of gold and silver stuffs ; coats, caps, stockings, 
and shoes of velvet, silk, and satin, embroidered with gold 
and pearls ; buttons and tassels of pearls and emeralds ; 
a chest for his clothes, covered with dark blue velvet, 
ornamented with mother-of-pearl • and a miniature car- 
riage, drawn by ponies, in which he was taken out to 
drive. Among his to^^s were musical instruments of vari- 
ous kinds, and all sorts of military equipments." Peter 
grew rapidly. He was able to walk when six months old. 
Being the pet of his parents, he accompanied them in all 
their excursions and visits. When he was three years of 



372 PETER THE GREAT. 

age, he was presented with a small carriage drawn by four 
ponies, in which he was driven by the court dwarfs, and 
he began to take part in the public processions of the 
court. One scene is thus described : " Immediately after 
the carriage of the Czar, there appeared from another 
gate of the palace the carriage of the Czarina. In front 
went the chamberlains with two hundred runners, after 
which twelve large snow-white horses, covered with silk 
housings, drew the Czarina. Then followed the small 
carriage of the youngest prince, all glittering with gold, 
drawn by four dwarf ponies. At the side of it rode four 
dwarfs on ponies, and another one behind." The pres- 
entation of Peter at court is tluis described : — 

" The door on one side suddenly opened, and Peter, 
three ^ears old, a curly-headed boy, was seen for a mo- 
ment, holding his mother's hand, and looking at the 
reception." 

At this time, there were a dozen princesses living at the 
palace, — the sisters and the aunts and the six daughters 
of the Czar Alexis. All were unmarried. They were 
forbidden to marry any below their own rank ; and since 
the Tartar invasion, only two attempts had been made to 
marry a Russian princess to a foreigner. None of these 
princesses, except Sophia, who had shared the lessons of 
her brother Theodore, had more than the rudiments of an 
education. Most of the princesses were disposed of by 
placing them in convents. Natalia, the mother of Peter, 
having been ln"ought u}) by a Scotchwoman, had seen 
more of society than the other royal ladies ; and she was 
allowed a greater decree of freedom than had been vouch- 
safed to her predecessors, who had been rigidly secluded 
within their own apartments. 

In 1676, the Czar Alexis died, and the throne descended 



PETER THE GREAT. 373 

to his eldest son, Theodore. It was the custom in Russia 
for the relations of the Czar's wife to liave great power ut 
court ; and when Theodore came to the throne, the 
Milosldvsky family, who were liis mother's relations, 
assumed great power, wliile the family of Peter's mother, 
the Czarina Natalia, lost their influence for the time. 

Both Theodore and Ivdn were feeble and sickly chil- 
dren, while Peter was strong and robust. But the law of 
descent was inexorable, and on the death of Alexis, Theo- 
dore became Czar. As lie was only fourteen years of a^e, 
the administration of the government was left to the min- 
isters of state. Now his sister, the Princess Sophia, who 
was very ambitious, formed schemes for getting the power 
into her own hands. She therefore so devoted herself to 
the care of Theodore, who was sick most of the time, that 
she gained complete ascendency over him ; and she met 
all the courtiers, who came to visit the sick Czar, with 
such affable manners, and showed such intelligence, that 
she won a strong party of the nobles over to her support. 
There was in Russia, at this time, a very powerful body 
of troops, which had been organized by the emperors as 
an imperial guard. These troops were called the Streltsi. 
The Princess Sophia paid great attention to the officers of 
these guards, and thus gained their good-will. Theodore 
soon after died, and named Peter as his successor, passing 
over his brother Ivdn, as his many infirmities rendered it 
impossible for him to reign. It is probable that it was 
through the influence of some of the nobles who were op- 
posed to Sophia, that Theodore was induced to name 
Peter as his successor. Peter, although but ten years of 
age, was proclaimed emperor by the nobles, innuediately 
after Theodore's death. Sophia now determined to resist 
the transfer of the supreme power to Peter. She secretly 



874 PKIKR TIIK GREAT. 

engaged the Streltsi, or giuirds, on her side. She caused 
a report to be spread, that the late emperor had been 
poisoned, and that the Narvshkins luid murdered the 
C'zarewitz Ivan, and that tlie Narvslikins wished to kill all 
the royal family. Tiuis were the relations of tlie Czarina 
Natalia, the mother of Peter, accused of desiring the 
death of all the children of the first wife of Alexis, tliat 
Peter might gain the throne. Such was the falsehood 
that the Princess So[)hia is said to have originated in 
order to secui'e the power. The cry then arose, '' To 
arms ! Punish the traitors ! To the Kremlin I Save the 
Czar I " A general alarm was sounded. The Streltsi, 
fully armed, advanced from all sides towards the Kr<^mlin, 
and surrounded the palace, demanding the Czarewitz Ivdn. 
Tlie Czarina Natalia was advised to go out on the red 
staircase with the Czar Peter and the Czarewitz Iviin, 
tliat the Streltsi might be convinced of the falsity of the 
rumor. Trembling with terror, Natalia took by the hand 
her son and stepson, and accompanied 1)y the nobles, 
went out upon the red staircase. ''Here is the Czar 
Peter and the Czarewitz Iviin ! " cried the nobles, to the 
mob below. " There are no traitors in the royal family ! " 
The Streltsi placed ladders against the rails, and some of 
them climbed up to the platform where the little Czar 
stood. Peter looked at them without blanching, or show- 
ing any signs of fear. But even this did not quiet the 
disturbance, and the Streltsi burst into the palace. Na- 
talia took Peter and fled for safety to the monastery of 
the Trinity. The soldiers pursued her even into the 
sanctuary, and to the foot of the altar ; but there the 
sacredness of the spot arrested their vengeance, and they 
left their victims with sullen oaths. In the meantime, the 
connnotion in the city continued for several days, and the 



PETER THE GREAT. 375 

brother of the Empress Natalia, and others of her friends, 
were slain. At last a compromise was effected, and it 
was agreed that IvAu should be proclaimed Czar in con- 
junction with his brother Peter, and that the Princess 
Sophia should be regent. Sophia, knowing that Ivdn, 
the poor idiot, would be but a tool in her hands, en- 
deavored in every way possible to prevent her half- 
brother Peter from becoming so intelligent and energetic 
that he would take the power away from her. She there- 
fore caused his teacher to be dismissed, and commenced 
to carry out her plan to ruin the bright and talented boy, 
by taking away from him all restraint, and indulging him 
in every pleasure and whim. Peter was now established 
in a household of his own, at a palace in a small village 
some distance from Moscow, and Sophia selected fifty 
])oys to live with him as playmates. These boys were 
provided with every possible means of indulgence, subject 
to little restraint. It was the intention of Sophia that 
they should do just as they chose, so that they would all 
grow up idle, vicious, and good-for-nothing ; and she had 
also the hope that Peter might so impair his health as to 
bring him to an early grave. 

But Peter had already been too well instructed, or pos- 
sessed too much native good sense, to fall into this snare, 
and instead of giving up his studies, he even contrived to 
turn his companions into scliolars also. He organized 
a kind of military school, where they practised the evolu- 
tions and discipline necessary in a camp. He caused 
himself to be taught to drum, so that he could execute all 
the signals used in camp and on the battle-field. He 
studied fortification, and set the boys to work with him to 
construct a batter}^ in a regular and scientific manner. 
He learned the use of tools, and the wheelbarrow he used 
in making the fortification was one he made himself. 



370 PETER THE GREAT. 

As he grew older, he continued to introduce higher 
brandies of military art into the school, and he adopted 
the uniforms and equipments for the pupils, such as were 
used in the military schools of other nations of Europe. 
The result was, that when he was eighteen years of age, 
and the time came for him to leave the place, the institu- 
tion had become a well-organized and Avell-appointed 
military school, and it continued in successful operation 
for a long time afterwards. So this wicked plan of the 
ambitious Sophia liad completely failed. Tlie energy and 
talent that Peter had displayed caused many of the leading- 
nobles to attach themselves to his cause, by which means 
he was finally enabled to depose Sophia from her regency, 
and to take the i)ower into his own hands. But before 
this took place, we must note a still more wicked and evil 
design of the ambitious princess. 

The party of nobles who now espoused Peter's cause 
thought it expedient that he should marry, and the cou.n- 
cillors accordingly chose for his wife, Eudoxia Lopukhin, 
a young lad}' of noble birth. The Princess Sophia did all 
in her power to prevent this match, but she was unsuc- 
cessful, and the marriage took place in February, 1689. 
It was thought that a good stay-at-home wife would be 
likely to keep him from taking his long excursions for 
military mamjeuvres, and for ship-building, of which he 
was so fond. But he had scarcely been married two 
months before he started off again for his boat-building 
on Lake Plestch^ief. Here he immediately set to work 
with his carpenters to complete the boats, and he wrote to 
his mother as follows : — 

" To my most beloved and, while bodily life endures, 
my dearest little mother, Lady Tsaritsa and Grand 
Duchess Natalia Kirilovna. Thv little son, now here at 



PETER THE GREAT. Zll 

work, Petrushka, I ask thv blessing, and desire to hear 
about thv health ; and we, through thy prayers, are all 
well, and the lake is all got clear from the ice to-day, and 
all the boats, except the big ship, are finished, only we are 
waiting for ropes ; and therefore I beg your kindness that 
these ropes, seven hundred fathoms long, be sent from 
the artillery department without delaying, for the work 
is waiting for them, and our sojourn here is being pro- 
longed." 

And ao-ain he writes : — 

"Hey! I wish to hear about thy health, and beg thy 
blessing. We are all well, and about the boats, I say 
again that they are mighty good, and Tikhon Nikititch 
will tell you about all this himself. Thy unworthv 
Petrus." 

Peter with his young wife resided in a country palace 
a few miles from Moscow. This place was called Obro- 
gensko. Meanwhile, the Russian government had been 
engaged in the Crimean War. 

The Poles, having become involved in a war with the 
Turks, proposed to the Russians, or Muscovites as they 
were often called, that they should aid them in an attempt 
to conquer the Crimea. In this war occurred the inci- 
dent relating to the famous Mazeppa, whose frightful 
ride through the tangled thickets of a wild countrv, bound 
naked to an untamed horse, was so graphically described 
by the poet Byron. Mazeppa was a Polish gentleman, 
and having offended a Polish nobleman, he was thus 
cruelly punished by his enemy. Some Cossack peasants 
rescued the poor Mazeppa from his terrible position, and 
he afterwards became a chieftain amongst them. He dis- 
tinguished himself in these campaigns in the Crimean war, 
fought b}' the Muscovites against the Tiuks and Tartars 



378 VKTEIi THE a UK AT. 

durinix the regcnoy of the Princess Sophia. This w:ir 
was not successful, and I'rince Golitsyn, who led tiu- 
Russian forces, was obliged to retreat; but fearing to 
have the state of the case known, he sent word to Mos- 
cow that he had been successful, and was received by 
Sophia upon his return with great honors, liut the young 
Peter, who had been studying military tactics, was so dis- 
pleased and disgusted with tlic military operations of 
Golitsyn that, when that general was received hy Sophia 
at ISIoscow with great state, the rewards could not then be 
read, as Peter had refused to sign them. He, however, 
was afterwards persuaded to grant them. But this un- 
fortunate campaign of Golitsyn's was the turning point in 
the struggle between the aristocratic party which espoused 
the side of Peter, and the government of Soi)hia. Now 
there was formed a dark and wicked i)lot, and some his- 
torians accuse Sophia of being a party to it, if she did not 
even propose it. This was the assassination of the young 

Czar Peter. 

The commander of the Streltsi selected a band of six 
hundred of the imperial guards to go with him to (Jl)i()- 
gensko. Their plan was to seize Peter at night while in 
his bed. This plot was, however, frustrated by two of 
the soldiers who revealed it to Peter. He could not at 
first l)elieve that Sophia would resort to such a terrible 
crime, and messengers were sent to the city to learn the 
truth of the matter. These messengers met the imperial 
guards when they had gone half-way to Moscow ; and, 
concealing themselves by the wayside until the troops had 
passed, they hastened back by a shorter j-oute to inform 
Peter of his impending danger. Peter had just time to 
flee with his wife and mother to the monastery of the Trin- 
ity, when the Streltsi reached his palace, and sought him 



PETER THE GREAT. 379 

in vain. They returned, discomfited and alarmed, to the 
Princess Sophia, and reported that Peter had escaped. 
From his retreat in the monastery, Peter sent a message 
to Sophia, charging her with having sent the imperial 
guards to take his life. The princess, greatly alarmed, 
denied her guilt. The excitement increased. The leadino- 
nobles flocked to the monastery to declare their adherence 
to Peter. Sophia endeavored to keep the Streltsi upon 
her side, but they at last went over to Peter, and he de- 
manded that the leader of the band who attempted his 
assassination should be delivered into his hands. This 
Sophia was obliged to do ; and the man was put to the 
torture, and revealed the plot. He said that the design 
had been to kill Peter himself, his mother, and several 
other near relations. The Princess Sophia was accused 
of being the originator of the plot, and many other per- 
sons were also implicated, including Prince Golitsyn, the 
commander of the Russian forces in the Crimean War. 
The leader of the band of guards who thus attempted the 
life of Peter was beheaded. Prince Golitsyn and his family 
were banished to Siberia, and many others implicated 
were put to death, imprisoned for life, or banished. Thus 
ended this conspiracy against the young Czar Peter. The 
Princess Sophia was shut up in a convent, where she was 
imprisoned for fifteen years, when she died. Iv^n, the 
brother-Czar with Peter, was too feeble and inefficient to 
take any part in the government, and he died about seven 
years after this time. The aristocratic party now filled 
the offices of state, and administered the government. 

As Peter was yet so young, he left everything in the 
hands of his counsellors, and for several years took 
merely a formal part in the administration. He employed 
himself in military exercises and boat-building, and in 



380 I'KTKR riiE (;rkat. 

the iiKlnlgcnce of liis niochanical tastes. As Peter 
grew older, ;iiul took more direction of the affairs of the 
government, lie made choice of two very able men, whom 
he afterwards raised to positions of great honor. The 
name of one of these statesmen was Le Fort, and the 
other was Menshik6f . Le Fort was the son of a merchant 
of Geneva. He had from childhood evinced a strong 
desire to he a soldier ; bnt his father preferred that he 
shonld become a merchant, and he was taken into the 
counting-house of one of the great merchants of Amster- 
dam. This merchant was constantly sending vessels to 
different parts of the world, and Le Fort was sent in 
charge of the cargo of one vessel to Copenhagen. At 
this time, an ambassador was to be sent from Denmark to 
Russia ; and, as Le Fort knew something of the Russian 
language, he secured the place of interpreter in the suite 
of the ambassador, and went with him to INIoscow. On 
one occasion, when the Czar Peter was dining at the 
house of the ambassador, he noticed Le Fort, and ob- 
served that he spoke the Russian language remarkably for 
a foreigner. He was at once interested in him, and soon 
secured Le Fort as his own interpreter, as he found that 
he also spoke other languages. Le Fort became a great 
favorite of the emperor's, and continued in his service 
nntil his death. The first improvement which Le Fort 
introduced into Russia related to the dress and equipment 
of the troops. The imperial guards had been accustomed 
to wear an old-fashioned Russian uniform, consisting of 
a long outer coat or gown, which much impeded their 
movements. Li conversing with the Czar, Le Fort sug- 
gested that the dress of the soldiers of the western nations 
was more convenient for military nse. Peter at once 
desired to see it ; and Le Fort immediately repaired to 



PETER THE GREAT. 3<S1 

the tailor of the Danish ambassador, aud ordered him to 
make two military suits in the style worn by the royal 
guards at Copenhagen, one for an officer and the other for 
a soldier in the ranks. Peter was so pleased with these 
suits, when they were shown to him, that he said he should 
like to have a company of guards dressed and equipped 
in that manner, and drilled according to the western style. 
Le Fort undertook the task of organizing and equipping 
such a band. When this company was completed, and 
clothed in the new uniform, and had been properly drilled, 
Le Fort placed liimself at their head, and marched them, 
with drums beating and colors flying, before the pal- 
ace gates. The Czar came to the window to see them 
pass, and was so pleased that he said he would join the 
company himself. He accordingly ordered a dress to be 
made for his own use, and he took his place in the ranks, 
and drilled as a common soldier. From this beginning, 
the entire imperial army was reformed. The Czar now 
proposed to Le Fort to make arrangements for bringing 
into the country a great number of mechanics and arti- 
sans from Denmark, Germany, France, and other Euro- 
pean countries, in order that their improved methods 
might be introduced into Russia. To accomplish this end, 
the tariff of duties on the products and manufactures of 
foreign countries was oreatlv reduced. This increased 
the importation of goods from foreign countries, and pro- 
moted the intercourse of the Russians with foreign mer- 
chants, manufacturers, and artisans, and accustomed the 
people to a better style of living by improving their dress, 
furniture, and equipages. Also, the new system greatly 
increased the revenues of the empire. Among other 
reforms instituted by Peter, was that of the dress of his 
people. The Russians had been accustomed to wear long 



382 PETER THE GREAT. 

gowns, similar to those worn now in Oriental countries. 
As this costume was inconvenient for soldiers, workmen, 
and artisans, Peter required it to be changed. This de- 
scription is given of one strange style of dress among the 
ancient Russian ladies : — 

" They wore a sort of dress, of which the sleeves were 
ten or twelve yards long. These sleeves were made very 
full, and were drawn up upon the arm, in a sort of puff ; 
it being the fashion to have as great a length of sleeve as 
could possibly be crowded on, between the shoulder and 
the wrist. The customary salutation between ladies and 
gentlemen in society, when this dress was in fashion, was 
performed through the intervention of the sleeves. On the 
approach of the gentleman, the lady, by a sudden and dex- 
terous motion of her arm, would throw off the end of her 
sleeve to him. The sleeve, being so very long, could be 
thrown in this way half across the room. The gentleman 
would take the end of the sleeve which represented, we are 
to suppose, the hand of the lady, and, after kissing and 
saluting it in a most respectful manner, he would resign 
it, and the lady would draw it back again upon her arm." 

Peter required the people to change this dress, and he 
sent patterns of the coats worn in Western Europe, to all 
parts of the country. He, however, met with a good deal 
of difficulty in inducing the people to follow these new 
fashions, especially regarding the shaving of their mus- 
taches and beards. He thereupon assessed a tax upon 
beards, requiring every gentleman who wore one to pay 
a hundred rubles a year ; and if any peasant entered the 
cit}^ wearing a beard, he was stopped at the gates, and re- 
required to pay a fine of a penny. The officers of the cus- 
toms, who were stationed at the gates of the towns, were 
ordered to stop ever}' man who wore a long dress, and 



PETER THE GREAT. 383 

compel him to pay a fine of fifty cents, or else kneel down, 
and have all the part of his coat which lay upon the ground 
cut off with a pair of big shears. The Czar first set an 
example also, of rapid motion through the streets. It had 
been the custom for all the nobles to move about attended 
by a vast retinue ; and as it was considered more stately to 
move slowly, and as all those lower in rank must stand, 
with uncovered heads, in the presence of their masters, 
the streets were often blocked in the snow and rain 
by these vast cavalcades of royalty ; and crowds were 
obliged to stand in the cold and wet, with bare heads 
exposed to the inclemency of the weather. Peter the 
Great was attended, therefore, only by a few persons, 
when going out in carriage or sleigh, and his coachman 
was ordered to drive at a quick pace ; and he limited the 
attendants of his nobles to a certain number. This story 
is told of the manner in which the Czar's attention was 
attracted to young Menshik6f, who became one of his 
chief officers. Alexander Mensliik6f was the son of a 
laboring man, in the service of a monastery, on the banks 
of the Volga. Young Menshik6f afterwards went to 
Moscow, and was there employed in a pastry-cook's 
shop. It was his part of the work to go out in the 
streets and sell pies and cakes. In order to attract 
customers, he often sang songs. At one time Peter was 
passing, and stopped to listen to the songs of the young 
pastr3^-boy. Finally, the Czar asked him what he would 
take for his whole stock of cakes and pies, basket and all. 
The boy promptly stated the sum he would take for his 
wares, but as for the basket, as it belonged to his master, 
he could not sell it; but he dryly added: " Still, every- 
thing belongs to Your Majesty, and Your Majesty has, 
therefore, only to give me the command, and I shall 
deliver it up to you." 



384 PETER THE a RE AT. 

This reply so pleased the Czar, that he took the boy 
into his service. When Peter the Great first became the 
sole ruler of Russia, after the downfall of Sophia, he was 
about twenty years of age. Ilis word was law. Life 
and death hung upon his will. His dominions extended 
so far, that, when he wished to send an ambassador to 
one of his neighbors — the emi)eror of China — it took 
the messenger more than eighteen months of constant 
travelling to go from the capital to the frontier. As to 
Peter's character, he was talented, ambitious, energetic, 
and resolute ; but he was also quick-tempered, imperious, 
merciless, towards his enemies, and possessed an indomi- 
table will. Peter thus describes his first trial of the open 
sea: — 

" For some years I had the lill of my desires on Lake 
Percy aslilvl, but finally it grew too narrow for me. I 
then went to the Kubensky Lake, but that was too slial- 
low. I then decided to see the open sea, and began often 
to beg the permission of my mother to go to Archangel. 
She forbade me such a dangerous journey, but, seeing my 
great desire, and my unchangeable longing, allowed it, in 
spite of herself." 

So, in 1693, Peter set out from Moscow, with a suite 
of a hundred persons, to go to Archangel. Having 
arrived there, the smell of the salt water was too inviting 
to be resisted ; and Peter put out to sea on a little yacht, 
called St. Peter, which had been built for him. His 
mother, who had exacted a promise that he would not 
go to sea, hearing that he had gone on a sea journey, was 
much alarmed, and wrote to him, urging his return. She 
even had a letter written to him, in the name of his little 
son, Alexis, then three years old, begging him to come 
back. To this he replied : — 




CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER AND PAUL IN THK FORTRESS. 



PETER THE GREAT. 385 

" By thy letter I sec, oh ! oh ! that thou hast been 
mightily grieved, and why? Why dost thou trouble thy- 
self about me? Thou hast deigned to write that thou 
hast given me into the care of the Virgin. When thou 
hast such a guardian for me, why dost thou grieve? " 

While at Archangel, besides the time which Peter gave 
to the study of commerce and ship-building, he found 
leisure for inspecting various industries and for practising 
both at the forge and at the lathe. A chandelier made of 
walrus teeth, turned b}' him, hangs now over his tomb in 
the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, at St. Peters- 
burg ; and carved work in bone and wood, and iron bars 
forged by him at this time, are still preserved. P>esides 
the balls and dinners which he attended at Archangel, to 
which he had also been nnich given at Moscow, he fre- 
(]uently attended a neighboring church, where he himself 
read the Epistle, sang with the choir, and made great 
friends with the archbishop. In 1694 his mother Natalia 
died, and soon he repudiated his wife Eudoxia and shut 
her up in a convent, where he kept her confined all the 
rest of lier life. Peter had only married this wife to 
please his mother and his nobles, and having never loved 
her, soon tired of her. She had been brought up in the 
old-fashioned Russian way, and was very ignorant ; but 
as she appeared to love him devotedly, his treatment of 
her was wicked and cruel, and in his after domestic life 
there is much to condemn. Althouoh he did much for 
the advancement of Russia, and his public enterprise and 
achievements are greatly to be admired, in character he 
was brutal and selfish, and his tastes were low and vicious. 
He was fond of drunken carousals, and sank the dignity 
of his rank in his associations with inferior and profligate 
companions. As a man, there is little to admire in him, 



386 PETER THE GREAT. 

but as a public benefactor of his country, he is greatly to 
be commended. As an artisan, statesman, and general, 
he introduced wise and good reforms iuto his realms, and 
raised his people from semi-barbarism to rank with the 
other civilized nations of Europe. 

Though he was not a scholar, he encouraged learning. 
There was, about this time, a second attempt made to 
assassinate the Czar. As Peter was often accustomed to 
attend conflagrations in Moscow, these conspirators 
formed the plan of setting fire to some building near the 
royal palace, and when the emperor, as was his wont, 
should come out to help extinguish the flames, he was to 
be assassinated. Tiiey then determined to go to the con- 
vent where Sophia was confined, release her, and proclaim 
her empress. This plot was, however, revealed to the 
Czar, and he thereupon ordered a small Ijody of men to 
attend him, and he went at once to the houses of the vari- 
ous conspirators and arrested them. They were after- 
wards executed in a most barbarous manner. Tiie crimi- 
nals were brought out one by one. First their arms were 
cut off, then their legs, and finally their heads. The am- 
putated limbs and heads were then hung upon a coUimn 
in the market-place in Moscow, where thej' were left as a 
bloody warning to others, as long as the weather remained 
cold enough to keep them frozen. Thus ended the sec- 
ond conspiracy against the life of Peter the Great. In 
1695 the Czar, in conjunction with other P^uropean pow- 
ers, declared war again against the Turks and Tartars. 
Peter acquired great renown throughout Europe for his 
successful siege against Azof, to obtain which was one of 
the chief objects of the campaign. This success also in- 
creased Peter's interest in the building of ships. He 
dotormined to establish a lars^e fleet on the Black Sea, 



PETER THE GREAT. 387 

and in order to ascertain the best modes of ship-buildino-, 
Peter resolved to make a journey to Western Europe. 

That he might not be burdened by fetes and ceremo- 
nies, he adopted a disguise. Macaulay said of this jour- 
ney, " It is an epoch in the history, not only of his own 
country, but of ours and of the world." 

Various reasons have been given by different writers for 
this step of the Czar. Pleyer, the secret Austrian agent, 
wrote to the Emperor Leopold that the whole embassy was 
" merely a cloak for the freedom sought by the Czar, to 
get out of his own country and divert himself a little. 
A document in the archives at Vienna states that the 
" cause of the journey was a vow made by Peter, when in 
danger on the White Sea, to make a pilgrimage to the 
tombs of the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome." 
Voltaire said, "He resolved to absent himself for some 
years from his dominions, in order to learn how better to 
govern them." Napoleon said, "Pie left his country to 
deliver himself for a while fiom the crown, so as to learn 
ordinary life, and remount l)y degrees to greatness." But 
later writers say, " Peter went abroad, not to fulfil a vow, 
not to amuse himself, not to become more civilized, not 
to learn the art of government, but simply to become a 
good shipwright." 

His mind was filled with the idea of creating a navy on 
the Black Sea, and his tastes had always been mechani- 
cal. In order to give the Czar greater freedom of action, 
the purpose of his journey was concealed by means of a 
great embassy, which should visit the chief countries of 
western Europe. In the suite of the ambassadors were 
twenty nobles and thirty-five called volunteers, who were 
going for the study of ship-building. Among these was 
the Czar himself. These volunteers were chiefly young 



388 PETER THE GREAT. 

men who biid l)cen comrades of Peter in his play-regi- 
ments and boat-building. During the absence of the Czar 
the government was intrusted to a regency of three per- 
sons, the uncle of the Czar and two princes. We have 
not space to describe this journey in full, and can only 
mention certain incidents. The Czar is thus described 
by the electress of Hannover and her daughter, whom 
Peter met at Koppenbriigge : — 

" My mother and I began to pay him our compliments, 
but he made Mr. Le Fort reply for him, for he seemed 
shy, hid his face in his hands, and said, ' Ich IxCinn iiicht 
sprechen.' But we tamed him a little, and then he sat 
down at the table between my mother and myself, and 
each of us talked to him in turn. Sometimes he replied 
with promptitude, at others, he made two interpreters 
talk, and assuredly he said nothing that was not to the 
point on all subjects that were suggested. As to his 
grimaces, I imagined them worse than I found them, and 
some are not in his power to correct. One can see also 
that he has had no one to teach him how to eat properly, 
])ut he has a natural unconstrained air which pleases me." 

Her mother also wrote: "The Czar is very tall, his 
features are fine, and his fio;ure verv noble. He has o^reat 
vivacity of mind, and a read}' and just repartee. But, 
witli all the advantages with which nature has endowed 
him, it could be wished that his manners were a little less 
rustic. I asked him if he liked hunting. He replied 
that his father had been very fond of it, but that he him- 
self, from his earliest youtii, had liad a real passion for 
navigation and for fireworks. He told us that he worked 
himself in building ships, showed us his hands, and made 
us touch the callous places that had been made by work. 
He has quite the manners of his country. If he had 




I'ETER THE GREAT IN THE DUTCH SHIPYARD. 



PETER THE GREAT. 389 

received a better education, he would be an accomplished 
man, for he has many good qualities, and an infinite 
amount of native wit." 

The Czar proceeded to Holland, and in the little town 
of Saardam, not far from Amsterdam, may still be seen 
the shop wliich Peter occupied while there. The histo- 
rians sa}', he entered himself as a common ship-carpenter, 
at Amsterdam, and worked for several months among the 
other workmen, wxariug the same dress they wore. In 
moments of rest, the Czar, sitting down on a log, with his 
hatchet between his knees, was willing to talk to any one 
who addressed him simply as carpenter Peter, but turned 
away without answering if called Sire or Your Majesty. 
Peter's curiosity was insatiable. He visited workshops, 
factories, cabinets of coins, anatomical museums, botani- 
cal gardens, hospitals, theatres, and numerous other 
places ; and inquired about everything he saw, until he 
was recognized by his usual questions, " What is that for? 
How does that work? That will I see." He made him- 
self acquainted with Dutch home and family life. Every 
market day he went to the Botermarkt, mingled with the 
people, and studied their trades. 

He took lessons from a travelling dentist, and experi- 
mented on his servants. He mended his own clothes, and 
learned enough of cobbling to make himself a pair of 
slippers. He visited Protestant churches, and did not 
forget the beer-houses. The frigate upon which Peter 
worked so long, was at last launched, and proved a good 
ship. He had seen some English ships which pleased him 
so much, that he determined to set out for England, which 
he did in 1G98, leaving his embassy in Holland. 

King William of England made Peter a present of an 
English yacht, with which he was much delighted. Peter 



390 PETER THE GREAT. 

spent much of his time in England, looking for suitable 
persons to employ in arts and mechanics in Russia. He 
avoided all court\)omp and etiquette during this journey, 
and travelled incognito, as much as possible. He visited 
also the mint in England, for he was pleased with the 
excellence of the English coinage, and he designed recoiu- 
iug the Russian money, which he afterwards accom- 
pUshed, coining copper, silver, and gold to the extent of 
$18,000,000 in the space of three years, to replace the bits 
of stamped leather formerly used. At length he returned 
to Amsterdam, where his embassy awaited him. When 
Peter the Great was excited by anger or emotion, the ugly 
aspect of his countenance and demeanor was greatly 
aggravated by a nervous affection of the head and face, 
which attacked him, particularly when he was in a passion, 
and which produced convulsive twitches of the muscles, 
that drew his head by jerks to one side, and distorted his 
face in a manner dreadful to behold. It was said that 
this disorder was first induced in his childhood, by some 
one of the terrible frights through which he passed. This 
distortion, together with the coarse and savage language 
he employed when in a passion, made him appear at times 
more like some ugly monster of fiction than like a man. 
He disliked court etiquette, and avoided pompous cere- 
monies. Of course there was much curiosity to see him 
in the various cities he visited, but he generally avoided 
the crowds ; and when his splendid embassy entered a city 
in royal state, and the people collected in vast numbers to 
behold the famous Czar, while they were straining their 
eyes, and peering into every carriage of the royal proces- 
sion in hopes of seeing him, Peter himself would slip into 
the city by some quiet street, in disguise, and meeting the 
merchants, with whom he delighted to associate, he would 



PETER THE GREAT. 391 

go to some inn and indulge in his pipe and beer, leaving 
his embassy to represent royalty. At last his diso-uise 
was discovered, and then the news was circulated that the 
Czar could be easily recognized by his great height, — 
nearly seven feet, — by the twitching of his face, by his 
gesturing with his right hand, and by a small mole on the 
right cheek. His appearance is thus described by one 
who saw him at this time : — 

" He is a prince of very great stature, but there is one 
circumstance which is unpleasant. He has convulsions, 
sometimes in his eyes, sometimes in his arms, and some- 
times in his whole body. He at times turns his eyes so 
that one can see nothing but the whites. I do not know 
whence it arises, but we must believe that it is a lack of 
good breeding. Then he has also movements in the legs, 
so that he can scarcely keep in one place. He is very 
well made, and goes about dressed as a sailor, in the 
highest degree simple, and wishing nothing else than to 
be on the water." 

But the Cardinal Kollonitz, primate of Hungary, gives 
a more flattering picture of Peter the Great : — 

" The Czar is a youth of from twenty-eight to thirty 
years of age, is tall, of an olive complexion, rather stout 
than thin, in aspect between proud and grave, and with a 
lively countenance. His left eye, as well as his left arm 
and leg, were injured by the poison given him during the 
life of his brother ; but there remain now only a fixed and 
fascinated look in hi"s eye, and a constant movement of 
his arm and leg, to hide which, he accompanies this forced 
motion with continual movements of his entire body, 
which, by many people in the countries which he has 
visited, has been attributed to natural causes, but really it 
is artificial. His wit is lively and ready ; his manners 



092 PETER THE GREAT. 

rather civil than barbarous, the journey he has made 
having improved him, and the difference from the begin- 
ning of his travels and the present time being visible, 
although his native roughness may still be seen in him ; 
but it is chiefly noticeable in his followers, whom he holds 
in check with great severity. He has a knowledge of 
geography and history, and, wiiat is most to be noticed, 
he desires to know these subjects better ; but his strongest 
inclination is for maritime affairs, at which he himself 
works mechanically, as he did in Holland ; and this work, 
according to many people who have to do with him, is 
indispensable to divert the effects of the poison, which 
still very much troubles him. In person and in aspect, as 
well as in his manners, there is nothing which would dis- 
tinguish him or declare him to be a prince." 

During his visit to Paris, the Czar often astonished the 
polite Parisians. "On one occasion he went with the 
duke of Orleans to the opera, where he sat on the front 
bench of the large box. During the performance the 
Czar asked if he could not have some beer. A large 
goblet on a saucer was immediately brought. The regent 
rose, took it, and presented it to the Czar, who, with a 
smile and bow of politeness, took the goblet without any 
ceremony, drank, and put it back on the saucer, which the 
regent kept holding. The duke then took a plate with 
a napkin, which he presented to the Czar, who, without 
rising, made use of it, at which scene the audience seemed 
astonished." 

Notwithstanding his rough rnanners, the history, char- 
acter, and achievements of the Czar, together with his 
exact knowledge in so many directions, and his interest 
in everything that was scientific and technical, made a 
deep impression upon those who met him. St. Simon 




PETER I., CZAR OF RUSSIA. 
(Ffonri Original Copperplate Engraving.) 



PETER THE GREAT. 393 

thus describes him : " He was a very tall man, well made 
not too stout, with a roundish face, a high forehead, and 
fine eyebrows, a short nose — but not too short — laro-e at 
the end ; his lips were rather thick, his complexion a ruddy 
brown ; fine black eyes, large, lively, piercing, and well 
apart ; a majestic and gracious look when he wished, 
otherwise severe and stern, with a twitching which did not 
often return, but which disturbed his look and his whole 
expression, and inspired fear. That lasted but a moment, 
accompanied by a wild and terrible look, and passed away 
as quickly. His whole air showed his intellect, his reflec- 
tion, and his greatness, and did not lack a certain grace. 
He wore only a linen collar, a round brown peruke 
without powder, which did not touch his shoulders ; a 
brown, tight-fitting coat, plain, with gold buttons ; a waist- 
coat, breeches, stockings, no gloves nor cuffs ; the star of 
his order on his coat, and the ribbon underneath, his coat 
often quite unbuttoned ; his hat on a table, and never on 
his head even out of doors. With all this simplicity, and 
whatever bad carriage or company he might be, one could 
not fail to perceive the air of greatness that was natural 
to him." 

While at Vienna, Peter learned of another revolt of the 
Streltsi, and thereupon hastened back to Moscow to put 
down the insurrection. The rebellion was soon quelled ; 
but the tortures and executions which followed were bar- 
barous. Some were beheaded ; some were broken on the 
wheel, and then left to die in horrible agonies ; many 
were buried alive, their heads only being left above the 
ground. It is said that Peter took such a savage delight 
in these punishments that he executed many of the vic- 
tims with his own hand. At one time, when half intoxi- 
cated, at a banquet, he ordered twenty prisoners to be 



394 PETER THE GREAT. 

brought in, and between his drinks of brandy cut off their 
heads himself, being an hour in cutting off the twenty 

heads. 

As Peter thought Sophia was implicated in this revolt, 
he ordered the arm of the ringleader of the plot to be cut 
off, and an address which he found, written to Sophia, to 
be placed in the stiffened hand, and by his order this 
ghastly relic was fastened to the wall in Sophia's apart- 
ment. When the trials were over, a decree was issued, 
abolishing the Streltsi ; and they were all sent into 
exile. Peter was now involved in a war with Sweden for 
the possession of the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. 
At first, the Swedes were victorious ; but in about a year 
the Czar gained possession of a considerable portion of 
the Baltic shore, and he thereupon determined to build a 
new city there, with the view of making it the naval and 
commercial capital of his kingdom. This plan was suc- 
cessfully carried out, and the building of the great city of 
St Petersburg was one of the most important events in 
the reign of Peter the Great. 

At length, Charles XII., king of Sweden, began to be 
alarmed at the increasing power of the Czar in that part 
of the country, and he invaded Russia with an army. 
The famous battle of Pultowa, by which the invasion of 
the Swedes was repelled, was fought in 1709 ; and this 
was almost the only serious danger from any foreign source 
which threatened the dominions of Peter the Great during 

his reign. 

Peter, having been previously privately married to 
Catherine, determined, in 1712, to have a public cere- 
mony. Peter's first wife had one son, Alexis, who occa- 
sioned his father the most serious trouble. Alexis was 
indolent and most vicious in his habits of life ; and so 



PETER THE GREAT. 395 

outrageous was his conduct that at last his father caused 
him to be imprisoned. It was then discovered that Alexis 
had been planning a revolt, and Peter referred his case 
to a grand council of civil authorities, and also a convoca- 
tion of the clergy to determine upon the sentence to be 
pronounced upon this rebellious son. The council declared 
that he was worthy of death, and the Czar confirmed the 
judgaient of the council, and a day was appointed on 
which Alexis was to be arraigned in order that sentence 
of death might be solemnly pronounced upon him. But 
before the appointed day arrived, Alexis was attacked 
with convulsions, caused by his terror ; and the Czar vis- 
ited him in the fortress where he was dying. 

The dying prince besought forgiveness of his father 
with such prayers and tears that Peter and his ministers 
were overcome with emotion. The Czar gave Alexis his 
forgiveness and his blessing, and took his leave with tears 
and lamentations. Soon after, Alexis expired. The 
funeral rites were performed by the Czar and his family 
with much solemnity. At the service in the church a 
funeral sermon was pronounced by the priest from the 
appropriate text, '•' O Absalom! my son ! my son Absa- 
lom ! " Thus ended this dreadful tragedy. 

The heir to the throne was now the little son of Cather- 
ine, Peter Petrowitz. The birth of this son, which oc- 
curred about three years before the death of Alexis, was 
such a delioht to Peter the Great that he celebrated the 
event with public rejoicings. At the baptism of the babe, 
two kings — those of Denmark and of Prussia — acted as 
oodfathers. The christeninsf was attended with most 
gorgeous banquets. Among other curious contrivances 
were two enormous pies, — one served in the room of the 
gentlemen and the other in that of the ladies. From the 



396 ■ PETER THE GEE AT. 

ladies' pie, there stepped out, when it was opened, a 
young dwarf, very small, and clothed in a fantastic man- 
ner. The dwarf brought out with him from the pie some 
glasses and a bottle of wine, and he walked around the 
table, drinking to the health of the ladies, who were in- 
tensely amused by his droll manners. In the gentlemen's 
room the pie was similar, from which a female dwarf 
stepped forth and performed the same ceremony. Peter 
the Great was much attached to his wife Catherine, whose 
romantic life we have not space to describe. Her influ- 
ence over the Czar was most beneficial. 

About a year after the death of Alexis, the little Peter 
Petrowitz, the idolized son of the Czar, also died. Peter 
the Great was completely overwhelmed with grief at this 
new calamity. P^ven Catherine, who usually had power 
to soothe his fits of frenzy, anger, or grief, and whose 
touch would often stop the contortions of his face, could 
not comfort him now ; for the sight of her only reminded 
him more keenly of his loss. It was feared at this time 
that grief would kill the Czar ; for he shut himself up 
alone, and would not allow any one to come near him for 
three days and nights. Peter the Great, however, lived 
sixteen years after this event. During these last years 
he continued the reforms in his empire and increased the 
power and influence of his government among surround- 
ing nations. As both of his sons were dead, he deter- 
mined to leave the government in the hands of Catherine, 
and she was crowned empress with most imposing cere- 
monies. In less than a year after this event, the Czar was 
attacked with a sudden illness during the ceremonies of 
rejoicings connected with the betrothal of one of his 
daughters to a foreign duke. His death took place on 
the 28th of January, 1725. Another of his daughters 



PETER THE GREAT. 397 

having died a short time after her father, their bodies 
were interred together. The funeral obsequies were so 
protracted, and were conducted witli so much pomp and 
ceremony, that six weeks elapsed before the remains of 
Peter the Great were finally committed to the tomb. The 
fame of Peter the Great differs from that attained by 
other famous rulers of the world ; for it was not conse- 
quent upon renowned foreign conquests, but the triumph 
which Peter achieved was the commencement of a work of 
internal improvement and reform which now, after a cen- 
tury and a half has passed, is still going on. 



398 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

A.D. 1712-1786. 

" Kings are like stars, — they rise and set, they have 
The worship of the world, but no repose." — Shelley. 

" A man's a man ; 
But when you see a king, you see the work 
Of many thousand men." — George Eliot. 

CARLYLE accused Schiller of "oversetting fact, 
disregarding realit}^, and tumbling time and space 
topsy-turvy." That there is great danger of doing the 
latter, in condensing such a life as that of Frederick the 
Great into the small space allotted to these sketches, can- 
not be denied ; but fiction itself could scarcely overstate 
the facts connected with this weird but most fascinating 
glimpse of historical events. Carlyle says : "With such 
wagon -loads of books and printed records as exist on the 
subject of Frederick, it has always seemed possible, even 
for a stranger, to acquire some real understanding of him ; 
though practically, here and now, I have to own it proves 
difficult beyond conception. Alas ! the books are not 
cosmic ; they are chaotic." 

True it is, it is not want of material, but the overwhelm- 
ing multiplicity of documents, which renders it difficult to 
trace out a clear-cut sketch of Frederick the Great ; and 
that we may do it more concisely, and 3'et entertainingly, 
a series of panoramic pictures will perhaps be the best 
method of achievino- the desired end. 




FREDERICK 11., KING OF PRUSSIA, .ET. 58. 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 399 

*' About one hundred years ago there used to be seen 
sauntering on the terraces of Sans Souci for a short time 
in the afternoon — or you might have met him elsewhere 
at an earlier hour, riding or driving in a rapid business 
manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy woods 
and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region 
— a highly interesting, lean little old man, of alert though 
slightW stooping figure, whose name among strangers was 
King Friedrich the Second^ or Frederick the Great of Prus- 
sia, and at home among the common people, who much 
loved and esteemed him, was Vater Fritz., Father Fred. 

"He is a king, every inch of him, though without the 
trappings of a king. He presents himself in a Spartan 
simplicity of vesture : no crown but an old military 
cocked hat, generally old, or trampled and kneaded into 
absolute softness if new ; no sceptre but one like Aga- 
memnon's — a walking-stick cut from the woods, which 
serves also as a riding-stick ; and for royal robes a mere 
soldier's blue coat with red facings, coat likely to be old, 
and sure to have a good deal of Spanish snuff on the breast 
of it ; rest of the apparel dim, unobtrusive in color or cut, 
ending in high over-knee military boots, which may be 
brushed, but are not permitted to be blackened or var- 
nished. 

"The man is not of god-like physiognomy, anymore 
than of imposing stature or costume : close-shut mouth 
with thin lips, prominent jaws and nose, receding brow, 
by no means of Olympian height ; head, however, is of 
long form, and has superlative gray eyes in it ; not what 
is called a beautiful man, nor yet, by all appearance, what 
is called a happy. The face bears evidence of many sor- 
rows, of much hard labor done in this world. Quiet stoi- 
cism, great unconscious, and some conscious, pride, well 



400 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

tempered with a cheery mockery of humor, are written on 
that old face, which carries its chin well forward in spite 
of the slight stoop about the neck ; snuffy nose rather flung 
into the air, under its old cocked hat, like an old snuffy 
lion on the watch, and such a pair of eyes as no man, or 
Hon, or lynx, of that centur3'bore elsewhere. Those eyes, 
which, at the bidding of his great soul, fascinated you 
with seduction or with terror ; most excellent, potent, 
brilliant eyes, swift-darting as the stars, steadfast as the 
sun ; gray, we said, of the azure-gray color ; large enough, 
not of glaring size ; the habitual expression of them vigi- 
lance and penetrating sense, and gives us the notion of a 
lambent outer radiance springing from some great inner 
sea of light and fire in the man. The voice, if he speak 
to you, is clear, melodious, and sonorous ; all tones are 
in it: ingenuous inquiry, graceful socialif}', light-flowing 
banter up to definite word of command, up to desolating 
word of rebuke and reprobation." 

Such is the picture of Frederick the Great in his later 
days ; but now we will turn back our panoramic views, 
and behold the setting of his early ^^ears : and, to a clearer 
understanding of those events, an aid may be found in 
glancing at his native country, Prussia. For many cen- 
turies the country on the southern coasts of the Baltic Sea 
was inhabited by wild tribes of barbarians, almost as sav- 
age as the beasts which roamed in their forests. After a 
time the tribes, tamed and partly civilized, produced a 
race of tall and manly proportions, fair in complexion, 
with flaxen hair, stern aspect, great physical strength, 
and most formidable foes in battle. Centuries passed, of 
which history notes only wars and woes, when from this 
chaotic barbarism order emerged. Small states were or- 
ganized, and a political life began. In 1700 one of the 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 401 

petty provinces was called the Marquisate of Branden- 
burg, whose marquis was Frederick, of the familj- of 
Ilohenzollern. To the east of this province was a duchv, 
called Prussia, which was at length added to the domains 
of Frederick, the marquis of Brandenburg, and he ob- 
tained from the emperor of Germany the recognition of 
his dominions as a kingdom, and assumed the title of 
Frederick I. of Prussia. On the ICth of November, 1700. 
his ambassador returned triumphantly from Vienna. •• The 
Kaiser has consented ; we are to wear a royal crown on 
the tx^p of our periwig." Thus Prussia became a king- 
dom. AVhen Frederick was crowned king of Prussia, most 
gorgeous was the pomp, most royal was the grandeur, of 
the imposing ceremonies. Carlyle says : — 

••The magnificence of Frederick's processionings into 
Konigsburg, and of his coronation ceremonials there, what 
pen can describe it ! what pen need ! Folio volumes with 
copper-plates have been written on it, and are not yet all 
pasted in band-boxes or slit into spills. • The diamond 
buttons of his majesty's coat' (snuff-colored or purple, I 
cannot recollect) cost £1,500 apiece. By this one feature 
judge what an expensive Herr. Streets were hung with 
cloth, carpeted with cloth, no end of draperies and cloth ; 
your oppressed imagination feels as if there was cloth 
enough of scarlet and other bright colors to thatch the 
Arctic Zone ; with illuminations, cannon-salvos, fountains 
running wine. Frederick himself put the crown on his 
head, * King here in my own right, after all,' and looked 
his royalest, we may fancy. — the kind eyes of him, al- 
most fierce for moments, and the • cheerfulness of pride ' 
well blending with somethincr of awful." 

And now we must hang up the picture of Frederick the 
srrandfather, for there has another Frederick come to 



402 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

claim our attention. "Courage, poor old grandfather! 
Poor old man ! he got his own back half broken by a 
careless nurse letting him fall, and has slightly stooped 
ever since, much against his will, for he would fain have 
been beautiful. But here is a new edition of a Frederick, 
the first having gone off with so little effect. This one's 
back is still unbroken. Who knows but Heaven may be 
kinder to this one? Heaven was much kinder to this one. 
Him Heaven had kneaded of a more potent stuff ; a 
mighty fellow, this one, and a strange ; of a swift, far- 
darting nature this one, like an Apollo clad in sunbeams 
and in lightnings, and with a back which all the world 
could not succeed in breaking." 

Between the old grandfather and this famous Frederick 
there hangs the picture of still another Frederick, only a 
little less famous, — Frederick Wilhelm, crown prince of 
Prussia when his famous son was born, afterwards second 
king of Prussia, and withal most ferocious in his nature, 
part bear and part maniac ; his picture is thus graphically 
sketched. 

"The new monarch, who assumed the crown with the 
title of Frederick William, not with that of Frederick II. , to 
the utter consternation of the court dismissed nearly every 
honorary official of the palace, from the highest dignitary 
to the humblest page. His flashing eye and determined 
manner were so appalling that no one ventured to remon- 
strate. A clean sweep was made, so that the household 
was reduced to the lowest footing of economy consistent 
with the supply of indispensable wants. Eight servants 
were retained at six shillings a week. His father had 
thirt}' pages ; all were dismissed but three. There were 
one thousand saddle-horses in the royal stables ; Frederick 
William kept thirty. Three-fourths of the names were 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 403 

struck from the pension list. For twenty-seven years this 
strange man reigned. He was like no other monarch. 
Great wisdom and shrewdness were blended with unutter- 
able folly and almost maniacal madness. Though a man 
of strong powers of miud, he was very illiterate. ' For 
spelling, grammar, penmanship, and composition, his semi- 
articulate papers resemble nothing else extant, — are as 
if done by the paw of a bear ; indeed, the utterance gen- 
erally sounds more like the growling of a bear than any- 
thing that could be handily spelled or parsed. But there 
is a decisive human sense in the heart of it, and such a 
dire hatred of empty bladders, unrealities, and hypocritical 
forms and pretenses, which he calls wind and humbug, as 
is verv strans-e indeed.' 

" His energy inspired the whole kingdom, and paved 
the waj- for the achievements of his son. The father 
created the machine with which the son attained such 
wonderful results. He commuted the old feudal service 
into a fixed money payment. He goaded the whole realm 
into industry, compelling even the apple-women to knit 
at the stalls. 

" The crown lands were farmed out. He drained bogs, 
planted colonies, established manufactures, and in every 
way encouraged the use of Prussian products. He carried 
with him invariably a stout rattan cane. Upon the slight- 
est provocation, like a madman, he would thrash those 
who displeased him. He was an arbitrary king, ruling at 
his sovereign will, and disposing of the liberty, the prop- 
erty, and the lives of his subjects at his pleasure. Every 
year he accumulated large masses of coin, which he de- 
posited in barrels in the cellar of his palace. He had no 
powers of graceful speech, but spent his energetic, joyless 
life in grumbling and growling. He would allow no drapery, 



404 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

no stuffed furniture, no carpets in his apartments. He 
sat upon a plain wooden chair. He ate roughly of roast 
beef, despising all delicacies. His dress was a close mili- 
tary blue coat, with red cuffs and collar, buff waistcoat 
and breeches, and white linen gaiters to the knee. His 
sword was belted around his waist. A well-worn, bat- 
tered triangular hat covered his head. He walked rap- 
idly through the streets which surrounded his palaces at 
Potsdam and Berlin. If he met any one, he would ab- 
ruptly inquire, ' Who are you? ' When his majesty took 
a walk, every human being fled before him, as if a tiger 
had broken loose from a menagerie. If he met a lady 
in the street, he gave her a kick, and told her to go 
home and mind her children. If he saw a clergyman 
staring at the soldiers, he admonished the reverend gen- 
tleman to betake himself to study and prayer, and enforced 
his pious advice by a sound caning administered on the 
spot. But it was in his own house that he was most un- 
reasonable and ferocious. His palace was hell, and he 
the most execrable of fiends." 

And now we will turn this unlovely picture of the bearish 
Frederick William to the wall, while we examine a portrait 
of the young Fritz, afterwards Frederick the Great. 

In the palace of Berlin, on the 24th of January, 1712, 
a small infant opened its eyes upon this world. Though 
small, he was of great promise and possibility, " and thrice 
and four times welcome to all sovereign and other persons 
in the Prussian court and Prussian realms in those cold 
winter days. His father, they say, was like to have stifled 
him with his caresses, so overjoyed was the man, or at 
least to have scorched him in the blaze of the fire, when 
happily some much suitabler female nurse snatched this 
little creature from the rough paternal paws, and saved it 
for the benefit of Prussia and mankind." 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 405 

Then they christened this wee fellow, aged one week, 
with immense magnificence and pomp of ceremony, Karl 
Frederick ; but the Karl dropped altogether out of prac- 
tice, and Frederick {Rich in Peace) became his only title ; 
until his father became king of Prussia, and Fritz stepped 
into the rank of crown prince, and subsequently became 
the most renowned sovereign of his nation, and took his 
place in the foremost rank of the famous rulers of the 
world. 

Frederick William had married, when eighteen years of 
age, his pretty cousin, Sophie Dorothee, daughter of 
George I. of England. Little Fritz had an elder sister, 
named Wilhelmina. There were several younger children 
afterwards, but our story mostly concerns Fritz and his 
sister Wilhelmina, for whom he showed greater affection 
than for any other person. 

Frederick William was very desirous that Fritz should 
be a soldier, but the beautiful laughing Fritz, with his 
long golden curls and sensitive nature, was fonder of 
books and music than of war and soldiering, which much 
offended his stern father ; and so great was his abhorrence 
of such a feminine employment as he esteemed music, that 
little Fritz and Wilhelmina must needs practice in secret ; 
and had it not been for the aid of their mother, the Queen 
Sophie Dorothee, they would have been denied this great 
pleasure. But the music-masters were sent to the forests 
or caves by the queen, and there the prince Fritz and 
Wilhelmina took their much-prized music-lessons. But 
one day the stern king found Fritz and Wilhelmina march- 
ing around together, while the laughing prince was proudly 
beating a drum, much to his own and sister's delight. 
The king was so overjoyed at this manifestation of sup- 
posed military taste in his son, that he immediately called 



406 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

the queen to witness the performance, and then employed 
an artist to transfer the scene to canvas. This picture 
still hangs upon the walls of the Charlottenburg Palace. 

When Fritz was but six years old, a military company 
was organized for him, consisting of about three hundred 
lads. This band was called " The Crown Prince Cadets." 
Fritz was very thoroughly drilled in his military duties, 
and a uniform was provided for him. An arsenal was 
built on the palace grounds at Potsdam, where he mounted 
batteries and practised gunnery with small brass ordnance. 
Until Fritz w^as seven 3^ears of age, his education had 
been under the care of a French governess ; but at that 
age he was taken from his lady teachers and placed under 
tutors. These tutors were militarv officers of great re- 
nown. 

The following directions were drawn up by Frederick 
William, regarding his son's education : — 

*' My son must be impressed with love and fear of God, 
as the foundation of our temporal and eternal welfare. 
No false religions or sects of Atheist, Arian, Socinian, or 
whatever name the poisonous things have, which can 
easily corrupt a young mind, are to be even named in his 
hearing. He is to be taught a proper abhorrence of 
Papistry, and to be shown its baselessness and nonsensi- 
cality. Impress on him the true religion, which consists 
essentially in this : that Christ died for all men. He is 
to learn no Latin, but French and German, so as to speak 
and write with brevity and propriety. Let him learn 
arithmetic, mathematics, artillery, economy, to the very 
bottom ; history in particular ; ancient history only 
slightly, but the history of the last one hundred and fifty 
years to the exactest pitch. He must be completely mas- 
ter of geography, as also of whatever is remarkable in 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 407 

each country. With increasing years you will more and 
more, to an especial degree, go upon fortification, the 
formation of a camp, and other war sciences, that the 
prince may from youth upward be trained to act as officer 
and general, and to seek all his glory in the soldier pro- 
fession." 

Frederick William took little Fritz with him from early 
childhood on all his military reviews, and in going from 
garrison to garrison the king employed a common vehicle 
called a sausage-car. This consisted of a mere stuffed 
pole, some ten or twelve feet long, upon which they sat 
astride. It rested upon wheels, and the riders, ten or a 
dozen, were rattled along over the rough roads through 
dust and rain, in winter's cold and summer's heat. This 
iron king robbed his child even of sleep, saying, "Too 
much sleep stupefies a fellow." Sitting astride of this 
log carriage, the tender and delicate Fritz, whose love 
was for music, poetry, and books, was forced to endure 
all kinds of hardship and fatigue. When Fritz was ten 
years of age, his exacting father made out a set of rules 
which covered all the hours of this poor boy's life. Not 
even Saturday or Sunday was left untrammelled by his 
stern requirements. 

Fritz was a remarkably handsome boy, with a fine fig- 
ure, small and dehcate hands and feet, and flowing blonde 
hair. His father, despising all the etiquette and social 
manners of life and dress, ordered his beautiful hair to be 
cut off, and denied him every luxury of the toilet and 
adornment. Frederick William early displayed an aver- 
sion for his handsome son, which soon amounted to actual 
hatred. As Wilhelmina and the mother of Fritz both took 
his part against the angry and brutal king, the wrath of 
that almost inhuman monster was also meted out to them. 



408 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

When Fritz was fourteen years of age, he was ap- 
pointed by his father as captain of the Potsdam Grena- 
dier Guards. This regiment was the glor}' of the king, 
and was composed entirely of giants. The shortest of 
the men were nearly seven feet high, and tlie tallest 
nearly nine feet in height. Frederick William did not 
scruple to take any means of securing these coveted 
giants, and his recruiting officers were stationed in 
many places for the purpose of seizing any large men, no 
matter what their nationality or position. When the 
rulers of neighboring realms complained at this unlawful 
seizure of their subjects, the Prussian king pretended that 
it was done without his knowledge. If any young woman 
was found in his kingdom of remarkable stature, she was 
compelled to marr}^ one of the king's giants. This guard 
consisted of 2,400 men. 

The queen-mother, Sophie Dorothee, had set her mind 
upon bringing about a double marriage, between Wilhel- 
mina and her cousin Fred, son of the king of England, 
and Fritz and his cousin, the princess Amelia, the sister 
of Fred. But though all her schemes came to naught, 
they occasioned much trouble in her family, and brought 
down upon the heads of poor Wilhelmina and Fritz much 
brutal persecution from their inhuman father. 

Frederick William took his son Fritz to visit Augustus, 
king of Poland. This king was an exceedingly profligate 
man, and the young Fritz learned vicious habits at this 
court, which lured him into evil ways which ever after left 
their blot upon his character and morals. This fatal visit 
to Dresden occurred when Fritz was sixteen years of age, 
and the dissipation of those four weeks introduced the 
crown prince to habits which have left an indelible stain 
upon his reputation, and which poisoned his life. The 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 409 

king's previous dislike to his son was now converted into 
contempt and hatred, as he became aware of his vicious 
habits ; for though the iron king was a maniac in temper, 
and cruel as a savage, he had no weakness towards an 
immoral life. King Frederick William was now confined 
to his chair with gout, and poor Wilhelmina and Fritz 
were the victinis upon whom his severest tyrannies fell. 
The princess Wilhelmina was very beautiful, and had it 
not been for his love for this sister, upon whom the whole 
weight of his father's resentment would then fall, Fritz 
would have escaped from his home and the terrible ill- 
treatment he there received. 

We have not space to give the pictures of the family 
broils in this unhappy household. Now the crabbed old 
man would snatch the plates from the table at dinner and 
fling them at the heads of his children, usually at hapless 
Wilhelmina or Fritz ; then, angered at Wilhelmina be- 
cause she refused to take whatever husband her cruel 
father might select, irrespective of her inclination or 
wishes, he shut the poor princess up in her apartment, 
and tried to starve her into submission ; for, as she writes, 
" I was really dying of hunger, having nothing to eat but 
soup made with salt and water and a ragout of old bones, 
full of hairs and other dirt." At last she yielded to her 
father's demands ; but then she incurred the anger of her 
mother, who had set her heart upon the match with the 
prince of Wales. 

So the poor princess' days were full of bitterness. But, 
fortunately, the prince of Baireuth, whom she married, 
turned out to be a kind husband ; but as he was absent 
most of the time on regimental duty, and had but his 
small salary, and the old marquis of Baireuth, her hus- 
band's father, was penurious, irascible, and an inebriate, 



410 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

she often suffered for the necessaries of Ufe. The home 
of her step-parents was unendurable, and the home of her 
childhood was still more so. Unhappy princess ! and 
yet, in the midst of all this misery, her bright and graphic 
letters form one of the greatest delights to students of 
history, and give true pictures of the home of Frederick 
the Great, which can be found nowhere else. 

Fritz had now so seriously offended his father, that the 
king openly exposed him to contempt. He even flogged 
the prince with his rattan in the presence of others ; and the 
3'oung heir-apparent to the throne of Prussia, beautiful in 
person, high-spirited, and of superior genius, was treated 
by his father with studied insult, even in the presence of 
monarchs, of lords and ladies, of the highest dignitaries 
of Europe ; and after raining blows upon his head, he 
exclaimed in diabolical wrath, as if desirous of goading 
his son to suicide : " Had I been so treated by \T\y father, 
I would have blown my brains out. But this fellow has 
no honor. He takes all that comes." 

But at last Fritz decided not to take longer all that 
came, and so he prepared for flight. On the 15th of July, 
1730, the king of Prussia set out with a small train, 
accompanied by Fritz, to take a journey to the Rhine. 
When near Augsburg, Fritz wrote to Lieutenant Katte, 
one of his profligate friends, stating that he should em- 
brace the first opportunity to escape to the Hague ; that 
there he should assume the name of the Count of Alber- 
ville. He wished Katte to join him there, and to bring 
with him the overcoat and the one thousand ducats which 
he had left in his hands. Just after midnight the prince 
stole out to meet his valet, who had been commanded to 
bring some horses to the village green. But as Keith, the 
valet, appeared with the horses, he was accosted by one 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 411 

of the king's guard ; and the prince, although disguised 
with a red overcoat, was recognized and forced to with- 
draw to his own quarters and give up the attempt for that 
time. The king was informed of these things, and now 
the poor prince was put in the care of three of the guard, 
and they were informed if the prince was allowed to 
escape, death would be their doom. Upon the king's 
arrival at Wesel, he ordered his culprit son to be brought 
before him. A terrible scene ensued. As the king would 
give no assurance that his friends who had aided him 
should be pardoned, the crown prince evaded all attempts 
to extort from him confessions v/hich would implicate 
them. "Why," asked the king, furiously, "did you at- 
tempt to desert?" 

"I wished to escape," the prince boldly replied, " be- 
cause you did not treat me like' a son, but like an abject 
slave." 

"You are a cowardly deserter," the father exclaimed, 
" devoid of all feelings of honor." 

" I have as much honor as you have," the son replied ; 
" and I have only done that which I have heard you say a 
hundred times you would have done yourself, had you been 
treated as I have been." 

The infuriated king was now beside himself with rage. 
He drew his sword and seemed upon the point of thrust- 
ing it through the heart of his son, when General Mosel 
threw himself before the king, exclaiming, " Sire, you may 
kill me, but spare your son." The prince was then placed 
in a room where two sentries watched over him with fixed 
bayonets. As the prince had held the rank of colonel in 
the army, his unjust father declared he was a deserter, 
and merited death. Frederick William, whose brutal 
cruelty exceeds our powers of belief, then sent a courier 
with the following despatch to his wife : — 



412 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

" I have arrested the rascal Fritz. I shall treat him as 
his crime and his cowardice merit. He has dishonored 
me and all my family. So great a wretch is no longer 
worthy to live." 

His Majesty is in a flaming rage. He arrests, punishes, 
and banishes where there is trace of co-operation with 
deserter Fritz and his schemes. It is dangerous to have 
spoken kindly to the crown prince, or even to have been 
spoken to by him. Doris Ritter, a young girl who was a 
good musician, and whom the unfortunate Fritz had pre- 
sented with music and sometimes joined in her singing in 
the presence of tlie girl's mother, is condemned to be 
publicly wliipped through the streets by the beadle, and 
to be imprisoned for three years, forced to the hard labor 
of beating hemp. The excellent tutor of the crown prince 
is banished, the accusation against him being that he had 
introduced French literature to the prince, which had 
caused him to imbibe infidel notions. The wicked old 
king never seemed to think that his own brutal conduct 
miglit have influenced the prince to be indifferent to the 
religion which he hypocritically professed to believe, but 
so poorly practised. 

Meanwhile the crown prince was conveyed from Wesel 
to the castle of Mittenwalde, where he was imprisoned in 
a room without furniture or bed. Here Grumkow, one 
of the king's ministers, was sent to interrogate him. 
Though the cruel old minister threatened the rack of tor- 
ture to force him to confess, Fritz had the nerve to 
reply : — 

" A hangman, such as you, naturally takes pleasure in 
talking of his tools and of his trade, but on me they will 
produce no effect. I have owned everything, and almost 
regret to have done so. I ought not to degrade myself 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 413 

by answering the questions of a scoundrel such as you 
are." 

The next day the crown prince was sent to the fortress 
of Ciistrin, about seventy miles from Berlin. 

"The strong, dungeon-like room in which he was in- 
carcerated consisted of bare walls, without any furniture, 
the light being admitted by a single aperture so high that 
the prince could not look out of it. He was divested of 
his uniform, of his sword, of every mark of dignity. 
Coarse brown clothes of plainest cut were furnished him. 
His flute was taken from him, and he was deprived of all 
books but the Bible and a few devotional treatises. He 
was allowed a dail}' sum amounting to twelve cents for 
his food, — eight cents for his dinner and four for his 
supper. His food was purchased at a cook-shop near by 
and cut for him. He was not permitted the use of a 
knife. The door was opened three times a day for ven- 
tilation, — morning, noon, and night, — but not for more 
than four minutes each time. A single tallow candle was 
allowed him ; but that was to be extinguished at seven 
o'clock in the evening." 

For long months this prince of nineteen was imprisoned 
in absolute solitude, awaiting the doom of his merciless 
father. But the savage king had reserved still greater 
torture for the unfortunate Fritz. By the order of the 
king, Fritz, who also had been condemned to die, was 
brought down into a lower room of the fortress, and there 
compelled to witness the execution of Lieutenant Katte, 
his friend, whom the king had condemned as guilty of 
high treason. As Fritz was led into the lower apartment 
of the fortress, the curtains which concealed the window 
were drawn back, and Fritz, to his horror, beheld the 
scaffold draped in black placed directly before the window. 



414 FllKDKRUJK THE GREAT. 

The frantic young prince was in an agony of despair, and 
exclaimed, with eyes full of tears, " In the name of God, 1 
heg you to stop the execution till I write to the king ! I am 
ready to renounce all my rights to the crown if he will 
pardon Katte." But the attendants knew the iron will 
of the merciless monarch, and his cries and tears were 
unheeded. As the condemned was led by the window to 
ascend the scaffold, Fritz cried out to him, in tones of 
deepest anguish, " Pardon me, m}^ dear Katte, pardon 
me ! Oh, that this should be what I have done for you ! " 

"Death is sweet for a prince I love so well," replied 
the heroic Katte with calm fortitude, and ascending the 
scaffold, the bloody execution was performed, while four 
ofrenadiers held Fritz with his face to the window so that 
he must perforce look 'ipon the ghastly scene. But as 
Katte's gory head rolled upon the scaffold, the prince 
fainted. 

When the poor tortured prince regained his conscious- 
ness, his misery plunged him into a fever, and in his 
wild delirium he sought to take his life. AVhen the fever 
abated, he sank into hopeless despair, looking forward to 
nothing but a like horrible death. 

With strange inconsistency, the ferocious king, who 
could thus torture the body and mind of the prince, ex- 
pressed the greatest anxiety for the salvation of his soul. 
It is not strange that the example of such a father stag- 
gered the faith of his son, and failing to see that the 
religion professed by his father was bigoted fanaticism 
instead of the religion of the pure and saving truths in- 
culcated by a sinless Christ, the crown prince became in 
after-life an infidel. 

In accordance with a promise made by the king that 
his life should be spared if he would acknowledge his 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 415 

guilt, which word was brought to the lonely captive by 
Chaplain Miiller, the crown prince took an oath of sub- 
mission to the king, and soon after wrote this letter to his 
father : — 

' ' All-serenest and All-graciousest Father, — To your 
royal majesty, my all-graciousest father, I have, by my 
disobedience as their subject and soldier, not less than by 
my undutifulness as their son, given occasion to a just 
wrath and aversion against me. With the all-obedientest 
respect I submit myself wholly to the grace of my most 
all-gracious father, and beg him most ail-graciously to 
pardon me, as it is not so much the withdrawal of my 
liberty in a sad arrest as my own thoughts of the fault I 
have committed that have brought me to reason, who, 
with all-obedientest respect and submission, continue till 
my end my all-graciousest king's and father's faithfully- 
obedient servant and son, Frederick." 

Though the prince had been brought by his terrors and 
sorrows to make such an humble appeal, his father's anger 
was not entirely removed. The prince was still forced to 
dwell in the town of Ciistrin, in a house poorly furnished ; 
and though allowed to wear his sword, his uniform was 
forbidden him. He was debarred all amusements, and 
was forbidden to read, write, or speak French, and was 
denied his flute, of which he was exceedingly fond. Three 
persons were appointed constantly to watch him. His 
only recreation was the order to attend the sittings of the 
Chamber of Counsellors in that district. At last, through 
the intercession of his sister Wilhelmina, the king con- 
sented to allow Fritz to come home. 

In March, 1732, the crown prince was betrothed to 
Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of the duke of Bevern. 
The sufferings of this unhappy princess cannot now be 



416 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

related. The queen of Prussia received her with bitter 
hatred because this match would crush her cherished plans 
of marrying her son to Princess Amelia of England ; and 
Fritz himcelf, forced to be betrothed against his will, 
treated her with utter neglect. 

In June, 1733, the crown prince was married to Eliza- 
beth, she being eighteen, and he twenty-one years of age. 

Frederick I. of Prussia had reared a very magnificent 
palace in Berlin ; and in spite of all his stinginess in his 
household, Frederick William added masses of silver to 
the ornamentation of this palace, for he prided himself on 
his army and his money, as giving him power and influ- 
ence in Europe. He had stored away many barrels of 
money in the vaults of his palace, and as there do not 
seem to have been banking institutions in his realms in 
those days, he ordered vast quantities of silver to be 
wrought into chandeliers, mirror-frames, and balconies, 
w^iich gave him a great reputation for wealth, and could 
at any time be converted into money. This hoarded 
wealth saved his son from ruin, when involved in after 
wars which exhausted his treasury. 

The crown prince having married a niece of the empe- 
ror of Germany, and being also of age, his father lost 
much of his control over him. Frederick was now the 
rising sun, and his father the setting luminary. All the 
courts of Europe were anxious to gain the favor of the 
coming king of Prussia. The king allowed his son a petty 
income, but the crown prince borrowed large sums of 
money from the empress of Germany, from Eussia, and 
from England, who were quite ready to supply his wants, 
being assured of payment when he should receive the 
throne. Fritz did not forget his sister Wilhelmina, but 
gave her money to relieve her wants. War now broke 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 417 

out between France and Germany, and Frederick William 
became an ally of the emperor. 

The crown prince accompanied the king of Prussia to 
the siege of Philipsburg. The campaign continued for 
some time, but the prince saw little of active service. The 
king of Prussia being broken down in health by gout and 
intemperance, now became very ill, and was obliged to 
return home. 

Though Frederick returned from this campaign neither 
socially nor morally improved, he had become very am- 
bitious of high intellectual culture and of literary renown. 
He was now living at the village of Reinsburg, in a castle 
which the king had purchased and assigned to his son. 
He here gathered around him a number of scholarly men, 
and commenced and persevered in a severe course of 
study, devoting his mornings to his books, and the re- 
mainder of the day to recreation and music. The old king 
grumbled at his son's studies and his recreations, but Fred- 
erick was now a full-grown man, whose heirship to the 
crown made him a power in Europe ; and the snarling old 
king was confined to his room with drops\' and gout, 
growling away his last hours. The companions of Fred- 
erick's hours of recreation were gay and profligate young 
men, who scoffed at religion and ever}' virtue. No wonder 
that with such godless companions, and with such an in- 
consistent and irreligious example in his father, even while 
professing the most fanatical devotion to the church and 
religion, the mind of the talented young prince should have 
been turned into the wandering wilds of unbelief. Vol- 
taire was at this time about forty years of age. His re- 
nown as a man of genius already filled Europe. Frederick 
became an ardent admirer of Voltaire, and a correspond- 
ence was commenced between them. 



418 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

But now the grim old king of Prussia is forced to meet 
a still grimmer antagonist, who will not take " no " for an 
answer. He has fought the world, fought all human affec- 
tions, fought all feelings of humanit}-, fought every good 
spirit within his heart except a brutal fanaticism, which he 
ignorantly and superstitiously called religion ; fought gout, 
dropsy, and manifold complaints of the flesh ; fought his 
wife, fought his children, tried to tight the devil, but 
ended in being his slave ; but he cannot tight grim Death, 
which now clutches him in his ghastly grasp. But not to 
be outdone, even by this enemy^ while the death-gurgle 
was even rattling in his throat, he solemnly abdicated in 
favor of his son Frederick, and with his lingers trembling 
with the chill of the grave, he signed the deed, and falling 
back, expired. So the obstinate old king was determined 
that his ivill, not deaths should hand over the crown of 
Prussia, which he could no longer clutch with his own 
cruel hands. 

Voltaire said of his reign, " It must be owned Turkey 
is a republic in comparison to the despotism exercised by 
Frederick William." 

Frederick the Great was twenty-eight years of age when 
he became king of Prussia. He was very handsome and 
of graceful presence. In rapid succession the young king 
announced certain sentiments which were so amazing in 
the eyes of the rulers of that age as to be considered phe- 
nomena. The day after his accession to the throne he 
summoned his ministers and declared, ''Our grand care 
will be to furtlier the country's well-being, and to make 
every one of our su])jects contented and happy." 

Strange ideas ! when all sovereigns had hitherto thought 
only of their own contentment. Next, he al)()lis]ied the 
use of torture in criminal trials. More wonderful still, 




FKH1;EK1CK THE GREAT, 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 419 

the world said. Soou he issued this marvellous edict, 
wliic'h struck consternatiou in the midst of the upholders 
of bigotry and fanatical superstition : — 

'' All religions must be tolerated, and the king's solici- 
tor must have an eye that none of them make unjust en- 
croachments on the other ; for in this country everv man 
must get to heaven his own way." 

ILurope was electrified, priests trembled, bigotry and 
religious persecution hung their heads and slunk away. 
But more surprises! "The press is free!" thundered 
forth this powerful young Frederick the Great; and all 
these phenomena accomplished in the first year of his reign. 
No wonder Europe turned their eyes to the rising mon- 
arch. Sad pity that he did not continue in this line of 
action, bringing blessings instead of woes upon mankind. 
But the angel of wise reform was soon driven from his 
heart and mind by the subtle and poisonous demon of 
selfish ambition. 

The young king soon abolished the Giant Guards. He 
no longer coveted fine clothes, no longer indulged in the 
luxury of slippers and French dressing-gown, which had 
raised the ire of his ease-hating father. His hours were 
rigidl}^ counted, and various duties assigned them, in reg- 
ular routine. 

Though he treated his nominal wife, Queen Elizabeth, 
politely in company, he utterly neglected her in his domes- 
tic life, and in later years rarely ever addressed a word 
to her. 

On the south-west frontier of Prussia was an Austrian 
realm, Silesia. For more than a century it had been a 
portion of the Austrian kingdom. Maria Theresa had 
inherited the crown of Austria. Frederick, wishing to 
enlarge his own domains, determined to invade Silesia. 



420 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

History has severely condemned this unprovoked inva- 
sion. In January, 1741, the Prussian army were en- 
camped before Neisse. On Sunday morning, Jan. 15, 
the deadly fire of shot and shell was opened upon the 
crowded city, where women and children, wounded and 
bleeding, ran to and fro, frantic with terror. For five 
days the deadly missiles rained down upon the city almost 
without intermission. 

Not wishing entirely to destroy the city, Frederick then 
converted the siege into a blockade, and leaving his troops 
before the place, returned to Berlin. Frederick, in this 
six weeks' campaign, had let loose the dogs of war, and 
he must now meet the consequences. The chivalry of 
Europe were in sympathy with the young and beautiful 
Austrian queen. Every court in Europe was aware of 
the fact that it was owing to the intervention of the father 
of Maria Theresa that the life of Frederick was spared, 
and that he was rescued from the scaffold, when the exas- 
perated and ferocious Frederick William had condemned 
his own son to death. France had no fear of Prussia, 
but France did fear the supremacy of Austria over Europe ; 
therefore, France was leaning towards the side of Freder- 
ick. England was the foe of France, therefore England 
sympathized with Austria. The puerile king of England, 
George II., hated his nephew, Frederick of Prussia, which 
hatred Frederick vigorously returned. Spain was at war 
with England and ready for alliance with her foes. The 
father of the infant czar of Russia was the brother of 
Frederick's neglected wife Elizabeth. Russia had not 
yet displayed her partisanship to either side. Minor 
powers might be constrained by terror or led by bribes. 

Meanwhile the heroic Maria Theresa was resolved not 
to part with one inch of her territory, and the patriotism 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 421 

of the Austrian court, inspired by her, determined them 
to seek to drive the Prussians out of Silesia. A rumor 
comes that England, Poland, and Russia are contemplat- 
ing invasion of the Prussian realms. Frederick imme- 
diately despatched a force to Hanover to seize upon that 
continental possession of the king of England upon the 
slightest indication of hostility. This menace alarmed 
George 11. Young Prince Leopold had assaulted and 
captured Glogau from the Austrians, which Frederick 
considered an important achievement, and sent Prince 
Leopold a present of ten thousand dollars. 

Frederick next proceeded to push the siege of Neisse, 
but upon neariug that place, he found that General Neip- 
perg, with a large force of Austrians, were coming against 
him. The siege of Neisse was abandoned, and the en- 
tire Prussian army gathered around the king. The night 
before the contemplated battle, Frederick wrote to his 
brother, Augustus William, — who, as Frederick had no 
children, was heir to the throne and crown priuce of Prus- 
sia,— informing him of his danger, of the coming battle, 
and bidding farewell to himself and his mother in case of 
his death. No word of affectionate remembrance was 
sent to his neglected wife. 

On the morrow, which was Sunday, a snow-storm 
raged so furiously that neither army could move. On 
Monday the battle began. The Prussians advanced 
boldly with waving banners and martial music, and 
valiantly charged the enemy. But the Austrians returned 
the charge with such fury that the Prussian right wing, 
where Frederick himself commanded, was routed and 
put to flight. Frederick, struck with terror, lost his 
presence of mind, and ingloriously fled with the rest. As 
with his little band of fugitives he rushed into the gloom 



422 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

of night, be exclaimed in despair, " O my God, my God, 
this is too mnch ! " 

But as the crestfallen king waits under the shelter of a 
mill, a courier rides up and cries, " Tlie Prussian army has 
(jained the victory!" Thus the Prussian kin^ had been 
galloping from the battle-field in fear and terror, while 
his valiant troops were achieving the victory. This inci- 
dent caused unlimited merriment amongst the sarcastic 
foes of Frederick, and he himself Was never known to 
allude to this humiliating adventure. The picture of the 
heroic and intrepid Maria Theresa encouraging lier troops 
to patriotism and valor in the very face of her foes, and 
that of the terror-stricken Frederick rushing from the 
field of battle, do not form a comparison very flattering 
to the bravery of the young Prussian king. But as some 
actors on the stage who have had the worst stage-frights 
have afterwards made the most brilhant stars, so the 
ignominious flight of the king did not prevent him from 
becoming one of the greatest generals of the world. 
Gradually the secret alliance of France, Bavaria, and 
Prussia was made known. Under the threatening dan- 
ger which menaced ruin, Maria Theresa, urged by her 
council and by the English court, consented to propose 
terms of compromise to Frederick. To the English min- 
isters, sent from Vienna to offer a million dollars to the 
Prussian king if he would consent to relinquish this en- 
terprise and retire from Silesia, Frederick answered : 
"Retire from Silesia, and for money? Do you take me 
for a beggar? Retire from Silesia in the conquest of 
which I have expended so much blood and treasure ! No, 
sir, no ! I am at the head of an army which has already 
vanquished the enemy, and which is ready to meet the 
The countrv which alone I desire is alreadv 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 423 

conquered and securely held. If the queen do not now 
grant me all I require, I shall in four weeks demand four 
principalities more. I now demand the whole of Lower 
Silesia, Breslau included. With that answer you can 
return to Vienna." 

These tidings caused consternation in the Austrian 
council. Again the high-spirited queen was forced by 
her circumstances and influenced bv her council and Eno- 
laud to accede to the compromise, and she agreed to sur- 
render the whole of Lower Silesia to Frederick. But 
when such word was brought to the Prussian camp, the 
king replied, " I will not see the minister; the time has 
past. I will not now listen to a compromise." Now 
followed a dark and deceitful manoeuvre on the part of 
Frederick, which even the stratagems of war cannot war- 
rant. He entered into secret negotiations with Austria 
that if Silesia was delivered to him, he would form an 
alliance with them against the French, whose armies were 
already joined with his own ; at the same time apparently 
keeping faith with the French, but promising to betray 
them to the Austrians, meanwhile stating that he must 
keep up sham attacks to deceive the French. 

Frederick now invested Neisse, and pretending a sham 
attack, he really so vigorously assaulted it that it surren- 
dered, and having thus obtained the last fortress in Sile- 
sia, he caused himself to be crowned sovereign duke of 
Lower Silesia, and returned to Berlin in triumph. 

Having by this stratagem obtained vSilesia, he assured 
the French of his unchanging fidelity, and denied that he 
had ever entered into any arrangements with Austria. In 
commencing this war he had said, "Ambition, interest, 
and the desire to make the world speak of me vanquished 
all, and war was determined on." He had indeed made 



424 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

the world speak of him. All Europe spoke of him. Some 
extolled him, others denounced his amazing perfidy'. 
Admiration for his sagacit}" and fear of his power made 
many courts of Europe seek his alliance. Carlyle thus 
comments on these events : — 

" Of the political morality of this game of fast-and- 
loose, what have we to say, except that the dice on both 
sides seem to be loaded ; that logic might be chopped 
upon it forever ; that a candid mind will settle what 
degree of wisdom (which is always essential veracity) and 
what of folh'^ (which is alwa3's falsity) there was in Fred- 
erick and the others ; and, in fine, it will have to be 
granted that you cannot work in pitch and keep hands 
evidently clean. Frederick has got into the enchanted 
wilderness populous with devils and their work. Alas ! it 
will be long before he get out of it again ; his life waning 
toward night before he get victoriously out." 

This selfish rapacity of the Prussian king set the exam- 
ple to others. The whole world sprang to arms. Macau- 
lay says: "On the head of Frederick is all the blood 
which was shed in a war which raged during many years, 
and in ever}' quarter of the globe, — the blood of the 
column of Fontenoy, the blood of the brave mountaineers 
who were slaughtered at CuUoden. The evils produced 
by this wickedness were felt in lands where the name of 
Prussia was unknown. In order that he might rob a 
neighbor whom he had promised to defend, black men 
fought on the coast of Coromandel, and red men scalped 
each other by the great lakes of North America." 

In the winter of 1742 Frederick was engaged in a cam- 
paign to deliver Moravia, which was overrun by the Aus- 
trians. But in this he was not successful. On the 
morning of the 17th of May, 1742, Frederick again faced 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 425 

the Austrians at the battle of Chotusitz. In this famous 
battle Frederick was victorious, and the Austrians, under 
Prince Charles, were obliged to retreat. It required nine 
acres of ground to bur}^ the dead after this bloody conflict. 
Frederick did not pursue the Austrians after this vic- 
tory, and on the 11th of June the treaty of Breslau was 
signed. By this treaty Silesia was ceded to Frederick, 
and he agreed to withdraw from the French alliance and 
enter into friendly relations with Maria Theresa. In 
1744, however, Maria Theresa, having been joined by 
England, had been achieving so many victories on the 
field, that Frederick, deciding that she was gathering her 
forces to reconquer Silesia, again entered into an alliance 
with France and took the field against the Austrians. 
But in this campaign Frederick himself narrowly escaped 
being taken prisoner, and returned a defeated monarch, 
leaving a shattered army behind him. He had already 
exhausted nearly all the resources which his father had 
accumulated. Already the sumptuous chandeliers and 
silver balconies had been melted up. His disastrous 
Bohemian campaign had cost him three hundred and fifty 
thousand dollars a month. The least sum with which he 
could commence a new campaign for the protection of 
Silesia was four million five hundred thousand dollars. 
In spite of these apparently insurmountable diflflculties, 
the administrative genius of Frederick made a way by 
which he succeeded in raising another army. On the 4th 
of June, 1745, the battle of Hohenfriedberg was fought, 
by which victory Frederick escaped utter destruction, and 
the Austrians were forced sullenly to retire. All Europe 
was now in war, caused b}' the personal ambition of one 
man, who did not pretend that it involved any question of 
human rights. Frederick had openly avowed that he 



426 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

drew his sword and led his hundred thousand soldiers to 
death and destruction that he might enlarge his territories 
and achieve renown. All the nations of Europe wished 
to borrow. None but England had money to lend, and 
P^ngland was fighting Erederick, and supplying his foes 
with aid and money. Frederick realized that Maria 
Theresa, whom he had despised as a woman, was fully 
his equal in ability to raise and direct armies and in 
diplomatic intrigue. Berlin was almost defenceless. All 
Saxony was rising behind Frederick. In this hour of 
peril, with an army of twenty-six thousand men, Frederick 
was obliged to meet his 'foes at Sohr. Defeat to Fred- 
erick would have been utter ruin ; but the brave determi- 
nation of the Prussian king animated his troops with 
desperate valor to conquer or die. And conquer they did, 
and the victory of Frederick was complete. 

On the 25th of December, 1745, the peace of Dresden 
was signed. The demands of Frederick were acceded to. 
Augustus III. of Saxonv, Maria Theresa of Austria, and 
George II. of England became parties to the treaty. 
Frederick now entered upon a period of ten years of 
peace. The Prussian king now constructed for himself a 
beautiful villa, on a pleasant hilltop near Potsdam, which 
he called Sans Souci, which Carlyle quaintly translates 
" No Bother." He had three other palaces, far surpass- 
ing Sans Souci in magnificence, — Charlottenburg, at Ber- 
lin, the new palace at Potsdam, and his palace at 
Reiusberg. 

Voltaire made a long visit to the Prussian king. Fred- 
erick had been for many years greatly fascinated with 
that talented writer, but graduall}'^ Voltaire lost favor 
with the king. Frederick prided himself upon his literary 
abilities, and at first Voltaire flattered him ; but on one 




ARREST OF VOLTAIRE BY ORDER OF FREDERICK. 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 427 

occasion, when tlie king had sent him a manuscript to 
revise, he sarcastically exclaimed to the royal messenger, 
" When will his Majesty be done with sending me his 
dirty linen to wash ? " 

This speech was repeated to the king. Frederick did 
not lose his revenge. Voltaire had been made chamber- 
lain. His duties were to give an hour a day to the Prus- 
sian king, and, as Voltaire said, "to touch up a bit his 
works in prose and verse." 

But Voltaire used his sarcastic pen against the king, 
and especially against the president of the academv 
founded by the king at Berlin. A bitter pamphlet, enti- 
tled La Diatribe du Docteur Akakia^ appeared, and the 
satire was so scathing that the Prussian king ordered all 
copies to be burned. Voltaire, though allowing the whole 
edition to be destroyed before his eyes, managed to send 
a copy to some safe place, where it was again published, 
and arrived at Berhn by post from Dresden. People 
fought for the pamphlet. Everybody laughed ; the satire 
was spread over all Europe. Frederick was enraged, and 
Voltaire thought it safe to leave Prussia. The king had 
previously presented him with a copy of his own poems, 

and fearing that Voltaire had him now in his power as 

this volume contained some very wicked and licentious 
burlesques, in which Frederick had scoffed at everything 
and everybody — he ordered Voltaire to be arrested at 
Frankfort, and the book of poems recovered. Either by 
Frederick's malice or the stupidity of his agent, Freytag, 
Voltaire and his friends were subjected to an imprison- 
ment for twelve days in a miserable hostelry. The inti- 
macy between Frederick and Voltaire was thus destroyed, 
and a lasting friendship made impossible. 

In 1756 Frederick invaded Saxony. Thus was com- 



428 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

raeneed tlie Seven Years' War, which proved to be one 
of the most bloody and cruel strifes ever waged. It 
gave Frederick the renown of being one of the ablest 
generals of the world. In 1757 France, Russia, Austria. 
Poland, and Sweden were combined against Frederick. 
Tlie entire force of the Prussian king did not exceed 
eighty thousand men. There were marching against him 
combined armies amounting to four hundred thousand 
men. On the battle-field of Leuthen P^rederick met and 
conquered his foes. 

But still, peace was out of the question without further 
fighting. England, at last alarmed at the growing power 
of France, came to the aid of Frederick. But France, 
Austria, Sweden, and Russia prepared for a campaign 
against him. 

On Aug. 25, 1758, occurred the bloody battle of 
Zorudorf, l)etween the Russians and the Prussians. It 
was an awful massacre. The stolid Russians refused to 
fly. The Prussians sabred them and trampled them be- 
neath their horses' feet. It is considered the most bloody 
battle of the Seven Years' War, and some claim it was 
the most furious ever fought. Frederick was again vic- 
torious. But in October, 1758, on the field of Hochkirch, 
Frederick was defeated by the Austrians. Just after the 
dreadful defeat came the tidings of the death of his sister 
Wilhelmina. Thus ended the third campaign in clouds 
and darkness for the Prussian king. 

The destinies of Europe were now held in the hands of 
three women : Maria Theresa, who by common consent 
had good cause for war, and was fighting in self-defence ; 
Madame de Pompadour, who, virtually sovereign of 
France, by reason of her supreme control of the infamous 
Louis XV., as Frederick had stung her by some insult, 



FBEDKRICK THE GREAT. 429 

(lid not hesitate to deluge Europe in blood ; and Catherine 
11., empress of Russia, who was also Frederick's foe on 
account of personal pique. 

Frederick himself was undeniably an unscrupulous ag- 
gressor, and some call him " a highway robber." 

The cause of Maria Theresa alone could have been 
called honorable. In the fourth campaign of 1759 the 
terrible battle of Kunersdorf was fought in August. At 
first the Prussians were victorious, but tlie Russians at 
length routed them with fearful loss. So great was the 
despair of Frederick that it is said he contemplated suicide. 

For a year the struggle continued. The Prussian army 
left in Silesia was utterly destroyed by the Austrians. 
But at length the tide turned, and Frederick routed the 
Austrians at the battle of Liegnitz. But the position of 
Frederick was still most hazardous. He was in the heart 
of Silesia, surrounded by hostile armies, three times larger 
than his own. Weary weeks of marching, fighting, blood, 
and woe, passed on. Sieges, skirmishes, battles innu- 
merable, ensued. , 

At length the allies captured Berlin ; whereupon Fred- 
erick marched quickl}- to the rescue of his capital. At his 
dread approach the allies fled. Frederick followed the 
Austrians. 

We have no space to give details of the end of the 
])loody war. Frederick attacked the Austrians, under 
Marshal Daun, at Torgau, saying to his soldiers : — 

" This war has become tedious. If I beat him, all \\m 
army must be taken prisoners or drowned in the Elbe. 
If we are beaten we must all perish." 

After a day of hard fighting the Prussians held the 
field. Frederick, who was a very profane man, replied 
to a soldier, who inquired if they should go into winter 



430 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

quarters, " By all the devils I shall not till we have taken 
Dresden." But Dresden he did not take at that time, and 
went into winter quarters at Leipsic. The fifth campaign 
of the Seven Years' War closed with the winter of 1760. 

The Russians aud Austrians had concentrated in Bohe- 
mia. The summer and autumn wore away with little ac- 
complished ; the allies feared to attack Frederick, and 
the Russians retreated for winter quarters. But the Aus- 
trians captured Schweidnitz and so could winter in Silesia. 
This was a terrible blow to Frederick, but no word be- 
trayed the anguish of the hard-pressed Prussian king. 
Taking his wear}", suffering troops to Breslau, Frederick 
sought shelter for the winter of 1761-62. At this dark 
time he wrote : — 

"The school of patience I am at is hard, long-contin- 
ued, cruel ; nay, barbarous. I have not been able to 
escape my lot. All that human foresight could suggest 
has been employed, and nothing has succeeded. If For- 
tune continues to pursue me, doubtless I shall sink. It 
is only she that cau extricate me from the situation I am 
in. I escape out of it by looking at the universe on the 
great scale like an observer from some distant planet. 
All then seems to me so infinitely small, and I could 
almost pity my enemies for giving themselves such trouble 
about so very little." 

Poor blinded Frederick ! He could not even see that 
his own selfish ambition had tempted him to commence 
an unjust war, and thus to bring upon his own head all 
these sorrows. 

On the 24th of November, 1762, the belligerents entered 
into an armistice until the 1st of March. All were ex- 
hausted. On the 15th of February, 1763, peace was 
concluded. The bloody Seven Years' War was over, and 




EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, .tT. T^. 



FREDERICK THE GREAT. 43 j 

its immense result was, Frederick the Great had ca^>tured 
and retained Silesia. 

The expense of the war had been eight hundred and fifty- 
three thousand lives, which had perished on the battle-field 
Of the hundreds of thousands of men, women, and chil- 
dren who had died from exposure, famine, and pestilence, 
no note is taken. The population of Prussia had dimin- 
ished five hundred thousand. The world had run red with 
blood. The air had resounded with wails and cries and 
groans. Prussia was laid waste by the ravages of the 
war; and what had been accomplished? Frederick had 
achieved his renown; he had made himself talked of. 
Silesia had been captured, and Frederick the Great had 
been placed in the foremost ranks of the world's generals. 
Compared with the achievements of Gustavus Adol- 
phus, whose victories had laid the foundation for the suc- 
cess of the Ee formation, how petty had been the prize 1 
One, a Christian king, upholding liberty of conscience 
and religions freedom ; the other, an infidel king fighting 
in an unjust war for his own glory and aggrandizement. 
But the world applauded. Berlin blazed with illumina- 
tions and rang with the shouts of rejoicing. For twentv- 
three years Frederick the Great still lived to bear his 
honors. He must have the credit of endeavoring, during 
the remainder of his life, to repair the terrible desolation 
and ruin which his wars had brought upon Prussia. 

We have but space to glance at his last hours. Dark 
was the gloom which shrouded his closing days. His 
worst enemies were the scoffing devils of unbelief he had 
let loose within his own soul. No Christian hopes illu- 
minated the vast unknown into which he must so soon 
pass. To him the grave was but the awful portal to the 
direful abyss of annihilation. 



432 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

To his patient, cruelly neglected wife, he* penned these 
last cold words: "Madam, 1 am much obliged by the 
wishes 3'^ou deign to form, but a heavy fever 1 have taken 
hinders me from answering you." 

With no companions near him but his servants and his 
dogs, he awaited the coming of his last despairing end. 
And thus this lonely, hopeless old man fought his last 
battle of life; and on the 17th of August, 1786, the 
fight was ended, the battle lost, and Frederick the Second 

— Frederick the Great — was carried to tlie tomb, and 
laid by the side of his father. What a warning to the 
world ! What a warning to parents ! The inconsistent, 
brutal life of his father made him an infidel. 

His own selfish ambition made him more of a curse 
than a blessinsj to mankind. In the eves of the Great 
and Just Judge of the world, both lives were terrible 
failures. 

History has decreed that Frederick the Great gained a 
foremost place amongst the famous rulers of the world, 
and that his name stands in the first rank of the world's 
conquerors. 

But history has also written over his career the verdict, 

— He was an ambitious aggressor in an unjust war, which 
plunged all Europe into the horrors of famine, pestilence, 
bloody conflicts, and desolated battle-fields piled up with 
heaps of ghastly corpses, above which rose the direful 
wails of anguished hearts and the relentless flames of 
ruined homes. 



NAPOLEON I. 43^J 



NAPOLEON I. 

1769-1821 A.D. 

" He doth bestride the narrow worhl like a Colossus." 

Shakespkare. 
"Fameeomes only when deserved, and then is as inevitable as 
destniy ; for it is destiny." — Longfellow. 

TT was not physical force, it was the magnetic majesty 
-^ of mind, which looked forth from those awe-iuspii^ 
mg eyes, and gave him Jovesque grandeur and dignity 
and sovereign pre-eminence among mankind. No merely 
mortal man stands beside him upon the same level on 
the heights of fame. Upon the highest mountain peak 
ot human achievement and earthly greatness he stands 
alone, looking with calm, deep eyes and eagle oLance 
upon the rolling centuries which preceded his marvellous 
career. 

In spite of all the contradictory views which have been 
presented of Napoleon ; in spite of hostile historians 
who have stigmatized him as a usurper ; in spite of foes 
who have denounced him as a tyrant, inexorable as Nero ; 
in spite of calumny which has proclaimed him a blood- 
thirsty monster ; in spite of English literature and English 
criticism, which have denounced him as a scourge of' the 
race, as a ^' cook roasting whole continents and popula- 
tions in the flames of war" ; in spite of many a Judas, 
such as Bourrienne, Augereau, Marmont, Berthier, Ber- 
uadotte, Moreau, and others among those whom his own 
genius had lifted into prominence and power ; in spite of 



434 NAPOLEON I 

obstacles, such as no other mortal man ever conquered, 
Napoleon the Great stands forth the most amazing phe- 
nomenon of human achievement, personal magnetism, and 
mortal greatness. 

'' A man who raised himself from obscurity to a throne ; 
who changed the face of the world ; who made himself 
felt through powerful and civilized nations ; who sent the 
terror of his name across seas and oceans ; whose will 
w^as pronounced and feared as destiny ; whose donatives 
were crowns ; whose ante-chamber was thronged by sub- 
missive princes ; who broke down the awful barrier of 
the Alps, and made them a highway ; and whose fame 
was spread beyond the boundaries of civilization to the 
steppes of the Cossack and the deserts of the Arab, — a 
man who has left this record of himself in history has 
taken out of our hands the question whether he shall be 
called great. All must concede to him a sublime power 
of action, an energy equal to great effects." 

" Whether we think of his amazing ganius, his unparal- 
leled power of embracing vast combinations, while he lost 
sioht of none of the details necessary to insure success, 
his rapidity of thought and equally sudden execution, his 
tireless energy, his ceaseless activity, his ability to direct 
the movements of half a million of soldiers in different 
parts of the world, and at the same time reform the laws, 
restore the finances, and administer the government of 
his country, or whether we trace his dazzling career from 
the time he was a poor, proud charity boy at the military 
school of Brienne to the hour when he sat down on the 
most brilliant throne of Europe, he is the same wonderful 
man, — the same grand theme for human contemplation." 

In this short sketch we have no space for argumients ; 
nor does Napoleon need arguments to substantiate his 




NAPOLEON. 



NAPOLEON I. 435 

claims to greatness. Facts only can prove the supremacy 
of his fame, aud/ac^s proclaim him unparalleled in history. 
Lies only defame him and make him out a tyrant. That 
he was without fault or blemish we would not maintain ; 
that sad mistakes brought upon him evil consequences 
which he himself was the first to trace to their source, we 
do not deny. But that amongst all these famous rulers of 
the world, his is the greatest name, unprejudiced history 
has decreed. 

Of all these mighty conquerors of the world, Napoleon 
stands second to none. 

" When the sword of Alexander overthrew the Persian 
throne and subjugated the East as far as the Indus, he 
did but extend the civilization of Athens. The refine- 
ment of the age of Pericles, the acquirements of Attica, 
the philosophy of the academy and the lyceum, followed 
in the train of his victories. 

"When Cagsar subjugated Parthia and Germany, and 
carried the Roman eagles from the summit of Caucasus to 
the hills of Caledonia ; when he passed from Gaul to 
Italy, from Rome to Greece, from the plains of Pharsalia 
to the shores of Africa, from the ruins of Carthage to the 
banks of the Nile and the Euxine ; when he traversed the 
Bosphorus and the Rhine, the Taurus and the Alps, the 
Atlas and the Pyrenees, — in all these triumphal courses 
lie propagated under the protection of his personal glory, 
the name, the language, and manners of civilized Rome. 
If Alexander carried with him the Age of Pericles, and 
Caesar that of Augustus, if they were accompanied in 
their triumphs by the genius of Homer and of Sophocles, 
of Plato and Aristotle, of Virgil and Horace, Napoleon 
carried with him an age that the arts, sciences, and phi- 
losophy have rendered equally illustrious, and his enter- 
prise is no less than that of his predecessors." 



436 NAPOLEON I. 

Though the aristocrac}' of Europe denounced him as an 
odious despot and an insatiable conqueror, in the hearts 
of his people — the artisan, the laborer, and the soldier — 
he is still cherished as the "Man of the people, as the 
personification of that spirit of equality which pervaded 
both his administration and the camp." His name is still 
religiousl}' respected b}' the peasant in his cottage. His 
tomb is still cherished as the most sacred spot on earth 
b}^ the French people. Never did mortal man inspire 
such love and adoration in the hearts of his soldiers. 
This unprecedented idolatry of a nation is the best refuta- 
tion of the malign accusations of his enemies, "that 
Napoleon usurped the sovereignty of France ; that having 
attained the supreme power, he was a tyrant, devoting 
that power to the promotion of his own selfish aggrandize- 
ment ; that the wars in which he was incessantly engaged 
were provoked b}' his arrogance." 

Should the testimony of disappointed sycophants, whose 
pens are dipped in the venom of thwarted ambition and 
vanity, or the accusations of bitter foes, whose opinions 
are biassed by political intrigues, be believed against the 
character of Napoleon, rather than his own noble utter- 
ances, and the testimony of his incorruptible friends? 

That his invasion of Egypt was aggressive and unjust, 
we will admit ; but should England be the one to make 
the loudest outcry" against this expedition, when it was 
onl}' following her own polic}^ when she increased her 
possessions by her conquests in India? And even the 
superiority of English literature and English writers 
should not make us blind to the unjust prejudices of 
English critics. Had Napoleon not quelled the insurrec- 
tion, and given the final death-blow to the Revolution, how 
can any monarchy in Europe be certain that all thrones 



NAPOLKOX T. 437 

in Europe might not liave tottered and fallen ; that all 
European kingdoms might not have had to face a revolu- 
tion? Had Napoleon died upon the throne of France, 
even his English foes, who feared the lonel}^ exile, whom 
their duplicity and treachery had banished to the dreary 
rock of St. Helena, more than they feared any European 
monarch, would doubtless have joined the plaudits of the 
world in honor of the Hero of Success, irrespective of 
methods or motives. It is only because Napoleon out- 
lived his marvellous and almost miraculous success that 
the world condemns, and his enemies malign him. Had 
our own Washington been unsuccessful, then would he 
have been hung as a rebel, and our own glorious Revolu- 
tion would have been called a rebellion, and none would 
have been so loud in the outcry against us as England. 

But our success has compelled her recognition, and our 
marvellous growth in strength, power, and resources has 
gained her reluctant admiration. It is hardly to be ex- 
pected that England should ever forget how Napoleon 
made her tremble, and how near she came to being the 
conquered rather than the conqueror. 

From an earthly point of view, his was the greatest life 
of mortal man ; Init from a heavenly standpoint, even his 
greatness crumbles into dust, and his own higher nature 
was true enough to realize and acknowledge the instabil- 
ity of earthly renown, and the failure of even such phe- 
nomenal greatness as his own, to satisf}' the higher cravings 
of the immortal soul. 

To properly estimate the genius of Napoleon, and his 
achievements in behalf of France, a glance must be given 
to the bloody background of the Revolution, which rises 
up with all its ghastliness and horrors. The rights and 
liberties of the French people had been trampled under 



438 NAPOLEON I. 

foot by despotic and profligate kings and nobles ; and 
then brute force arose against oppression ; and brute 
force for a time conquered. 

Mobs surge like a mightj' ocean through the streets of 
Paris. Men, women, and children are turned into wild 
beasts of fury, thirsting only for blood. And blood they 
get — till Paris runs red like a river, and all the demons 
of hades seem to have been let loose upon the world. 
Such was the hydra-headed monster of bloody, lawless 
license and ignorant defiance which confronted the dawn- 
ing manhood of Napoleon Bonaparte. Such was the 
ferocious fury which the genius of this small, slender, 
pale-faced, smooth-cheeked youth of twenty-five en- 
countered with such dauntless courage and quelled by 
his irresistible foresight and execution. 

The monarch}^ of France had been dethroned. Louis 
XVI. and Marie Antoinette had paid with their lives the 
forfeit of oppression which was not all their own. The 
Royalists and the Jacobins had joined the howling mob of 
insurgents, and all together were rushing onward to attack 
the Convention, which was the only representative of 
government then in France. The troops of the Conven- 
tion had been sent to meet the mob, but retired in fear 
and panic. The mob advanced with demoniacal shouts 
of menace. The Convention trembled. In the midst of 
the terror and confusion one member exclaims, — 

"I know the man who can defend us if any can. It is a 
young Corsican officer. Napoleon Bonaparte." The Con- 
vention immediately sent for him. All expected to see a 
stalwart soldier, of gigantic frame and imperious bearing. 
Tiieir surprise was unbounded, when a young slender man 
of boyish presence appeared ])efore them. The aston- 
ished president incredulously inquired, — 



NAPOLEON I. 439 

' ' Are you willing to undertake the defence of the Con- 
vention?" 

" Yes," was the laconic and calm reply. With half- 
disdainful contempt the president continued, — 

" Are you aware of the magnitude of the under- 
taking?" 

Sweeping the assembly with his magnetic glance, and 
fixing his eagle eye upon the president, Napoleon re- 
plied, " Perfectly ; and I am in the habit of accomplish- 
ing what I undertake." 

And accomplish he did. But how? By the same meas- 
ures he had declared should have been taken when, a 
short time before, he had watched the furious mob rush 
unrestrained through the palace of the imprisoned mon- 
arch. Then he had exclaimed, " They should have swept 
down the first five hundred with grapshot, and the rest 
would have soon taken to flight." And his o^n success- 
ful quelling of the insurgents proved the correctness of 
his plans and the marvellous executive force of his 
genius. So Napoleon established the new government of 
France called the Directory. We have space only for a 
glance at his boyhood. He was born upon the island of 
Corsica, on the 15th of August, 1769. His father died 
while Napoleon was quite young, and liis mother, Madame 
Letitia Bonaparte, was left with small means to provide 
for eight children, — Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, 
Jerome, P^liza, Pauline, and Caroline. 

When Napoleon was about ten years of age. Count 
MarbcBuf obtanied his admission to the military school at 
Briennc, near Paris. Regarded as a charity student by 
his companions, he was here subjected to neglects and 
taunts which stung his sensitive nature to the quick. 
When Napoleon was fifteen, he was promoted to the mili- 



440 NAPOLEON L 

taiy school at Paris. On one occasion a mathematical 
problem of great difllculty was given to his class. Napo- 
leon secluded himself in his room for seventy-two hours 
and solved the problem. Napoleon did not blunder into 
o;reatuess. His achievements were not accidents. That 
he possessed native genius cannot be denied ; but he also 
possessed that perseverance and application which alone 
can win the success which genius aspires to, but which 
only energy and perseverance can make possible. When 
Napoleon was sixteen years- of age, he was examined for 
an appointment in the army. At the close of this exam- 
ination, one of the professors wrote opposite the signa- 
ture of Napoleon, ''This young man will distinguish 
himself in the world, if favored by fortune." 

Napoleon secured the position of second lieutenant in a 
regiment of artillery. He was ordered to Lyons with his 
regiment. While there, the Academy at Lyons offered a 
prize for the best dissertation upon the question, " What 
are the institutions most likely to contribute to human 
happiness?" Napoleon won the prize. The English, unit- 
ing with the Royalists of France, had seized Toulon, a 
naval depot and arsenal of France. The Convention, the 
revolutionary government, promoted Napoleon to the 
rank of brigadier-general, and gave him the command of 
the artillery train at Toulon. It was here that his mili- 
tary abilities were noticed b}- the member of the Conven- 
tion who afterwards proposed him as being the only man 
who could defend them against the mol), as we have 
already narrated. After quelling this formidable insur- 
rection, Napoleon was enthusiastically received by the 
Convention. Five Directors were now chosen by the 
Convention, who should constitute the new Directory, 
and the Convention dissolved itself, surrendering the 



NAPOLEON I. 441 

government into the hands of the Du'ectory. Njipulcon 
was appointed by them commander-in-chief of the Army 
of the Interior, and intrusted with the military defence 
and government of the metropolis. Having attained this 
high dignity, Napoleon placed his mother and the rest of 
his family in comfort. 

Famine was great in Paris. The Revolution had left 
all industries paralyzed. The poor were perishino-. 

Napoleon immediately organized the National Guards, 
established order, and distributed wood and bread to the 
perishing citizens. It was at this time that he met his 
future wife, Josephine. She was a widow with two chil- 
dren. Her husband, the Viscount Beauharnais, had per- 
ished on the scaffold during the Revolution. On the 6th 
of March, 1796, Napoleon and Josephine were married. 
Napoleon was twenty-six years of age, Josephine being 
two years older. This marriage was one of ideal love. 
When Napoleon was crowned Emperor, he was privately 
married again by Cardinal Fesch, in accordance with the 
forms of the Church, which the Emperor had re-estab- 
lished. 

Napoleon turned with disgust from the profligacy and 
dissipation which ever disgrace an army. To the defa- 
mations of his enemies who endeavord to malign his 
character, by accusing him of immorality, let his own 
words answer: '^ When I took command of the army of 
Italy, my extreme youth rendered it necessary that 1 
should evince great reserve of manners and the utmost 
severity of morals. My supremacy could be retained 
only b}^ proving myself a better man than any otlier man 
in the army. Had I yielded to human weaknesses, I 
should have lost my power." 

Napoleon was temperate in the extreme, and manifested 



442 NAPOLEON I. 

the strongest disapproval for gaming. Napoleon's first 
campaign in Italy was one of self-defence on the part of 
the French. France had renounced a monarchy and 
established a republic. The kings of Europe trembled. 
Enoland was hoverino- around the coasts of France assail- 
ing every available point. Austria had marched an army 
of nearly two hundred thousand men to the banks of the 
Rhine. She had called into requisition her Italian pos- 
sessions, and in alliance with the British navy the armies 
of the king of Sardina, together with the legions of Naples 
and Sicily, prepared to attack the French Republic. 

The Directory said to the joung commander-in-chief : 
" We can furnish you only men. The troops are desti- 
tute of everything, but we have no money to provide 
supplies." 

"Give me only men enough," replied the undaunted 
Napoleon ; " I will be answerable for the result." 

Leaving his bride in Paris, Napoleon hastened to Nice, 
the headquarters of the army of Italy. 

Now the first of those wonderful proclamations rings 
out in the ears of the astonished troops. " Soldiers, you 
are hungry and naked ; the government owes you much, 
and can pay you nothing. I come to lead you into the 
most fertile plains the sun beholds. There you will find 
abundant harvests, honor, and glory. Soldiers of Italy, 
will you fail in courage? " 

This apparent stripling then assembles his generals, all 
war-worn chiefs. Amazed and speechless, they listen to 
his plans. 

'• The time has passed in which enemies are mutually 
to appoint the place of combat, advance, hat in hand, 
and say, ' Gentlemen^ imll you have the goodyiess to fire?' 
The art of war is in its infancy. Experienced generals 




NAPOLEON IN THE PRISON OF NICE, 1 794. 



NAPOLEON I. 443 

conduct the troops opposed to us. So much the better, 
so much the better. It is not their experience which will 
avail against me. Mark ray words : they will soon burn 
their books on tactics and know not what to do. Yes, 
gentlemen, the first onset of the Italian army will o-ive 
birth to a new epoch in military affairs. As for us, we 
must hurl ourselves on the foe like a thunder])olt, and 
smite it. Disconcerted by our tactics, and not daring to 
put them into execution, they will fly before us as the 
shades of night before the uprising sun." 

And fly before him they did at the battle of Montenotte, 
regarding which Napoleon afterwards proudly said, ''My 
title of nobility dates from the battle of Montenotte." 

The Austrians fled in one direction, the Sardinians in 
another, before this invincible conqueror, and Europe, 
amazed, inquired. Who is this young general who has 
blazed forth in such sudden and appalling splendor? 

Meanwhile Napoleon issues this stirring proclamation : — 

" Soldiers, you have gained in fifteen days six victories, 
taken one-and-twenty standards, fift^'-five pieces of can- 
non, many strong places, and have conquered the richest 
part of Piedmont. You have gained battles without 
cannon ; passed rivers without bridges ; made forced 
marches without shoes ; bivouacked without bread. The 
phalanxes of the republic, the soldiers of libert}', were 
alone capable of such services." 

The humiliated king of Sardinia sued for peace. It 
was the eveninsj of the 10th of Mav, 1796. The Austrians 
had intrenched themselves on the banks of the River Po. 
As the French were making the terrible passage of the 
bridge of Lodi, in the face of the enemies' fire. Napoleon 
seized a standard, shouting to his men, "Follow your 
general ! " and plunging through the blinding smoke, he 



444 NAPOLEON I. 

led his bleeding column forward, and the bridge was 

carried. 

" This beardless youth," said an Austrian general, 
indio-nantly, "ought to have been beaten over and over 
ao-ain ; for whoever saw such tactics ! The blockhead 
knows nothing of the rules of war. To-day he is in our 
rear, to-morrow on our flank, and tiie next day again in 
our front. Such gross violations of the principles of war 
are insufferable." 

And more insufferable still would his enemies find the 
tactics of the invincible Napoleon. Some of the veterans 
of the army jocosely promoted Napoleon to the rank of 
corporal, in honor of his bravery at the bridge of Lodi. 
When their general next appeared before his army, he was 
greeted with the shouts, " Long live our little cor^yoral!" 
and even in the dignity of consul and emperor. Napoleon 
never lost this affectionate nickname amongst his troops, 
of whom he was the idol. 

We have no space for details ; the battles of Castiglione, 
Areola, and the bloody conflict of Rivoli had been fought. 
The imperial court had sent out five armies against the 
French Republicans, and had encountered defeat and de- 
struction at the hands of the beardless general, who they 
had disdainfully declared knew nothing about war tactics. 
Mantua had fallen, and the Austrians were driven from 
Italy. The Pope implored the clemency of the conqueror. 
But the Italian people everywhere hailed him as their de- 
liverer. Still Austria refused to make peace with repub- 
lican France, and the march to Vienna was commenced. 
Again one of those soul-stirring, inspiring proclamations 
was issued to his troops. 

" Soldiers, the campaign just ended has given you im- 
perishable renown. You have been victorious in fourteen 



J 



NAPOLEON I. 445 

pitched battles and seventy actions. You have taken 
more than a hundred thousand prisoners, five hundred 
field-pieces, two thousand heavy guns, and four pon- 
troon trains. You have maintained the army durino- the 
whole campaign. In addition to this, vou have sen" six 
millions of dollars to the public treasury, and have en- 
riched the National Museum with three hundred master- 
pieces of the art of ancient and modern Italv, which it 
has required thirty centuries to produce. You have con- 
quered the finest countries of Europe. The French flag 
waves for the first time upon the Adriatic, opposite \o 
Macedon, the native country of Alexander. Still higher 
destinies await you. I know that you will not prove^m- 
worthy of them. Of all the foes that conspired to stifle 
the Republic in its birth, the Austrian emperor alone re- 
mains before you. To obtain peace we must seek it in 
the heart of his hereditary state. You will there find a 
brave people, whose religion and customs you will respect, 
and whose property you will hold sacred. Remember 
that it is liberty you carry to the brave Hungarian 
nation." 

As he had to the Italian people, so also to the Austrian 
people Napoleon issued one of his glowing proclamations, 
assuring them that he was fighting not for conquest but for 
peace ; that the people of Austria would find in him a pro- 
tector, who would respect their religion and defend all 
their rights. 

All was consternation in Vienna. The people clamored 
for peace, and the Austrian emperor sent ambassadors to 
Napoleon. A treaty was signed, and Austria was con- 
quered. Not a year had elapsed since this nameless 
young man of twenty-six, with thirty thousand ragged, 
starving troops, had dauntlessly undertaken this seemingly 



446 NAPOLEON I. 

impossible enterprise. N*ow Italy was at his feet. Aus- 
tria was forced to come to terms. All his foes were 
stunnecl into terror-striction inaction. 

Before the treaty of Campo Formio was signed, every 
possible endeavor was made to bribe Napoleon to make 
terms which should conduce to the advantage of his foes. 
The wealth of Europe was laid at his feet. Millions upon 
millions of gold were offered to him, but his noble spirit 
conld not thus be tarnished. 

Napoleon arrived in Paris on the 7th of December, 
1797, having been absent about eighteen months. The 
Directory, jealous of Napoleon's power and popularity, 
were forced by the enthusiasm of the people to prepare a 
triumphal festival for the delivery of the treaty of Campo 

Formio. 

The magnificent palace of the Luxembourg was adorned 
for this gorgeous show. The walls were hung with glit- 
tering trophies ; the vast galleries were crowded with 
those illustrious in rank ; martial music rang out upon the 
air, and the thunders of the cannon mingled with the en- 
thusiastic shouts of the rejoicing multitudes. Napoleon 
was introduced by Talleyrand in an eloquent speech. 
Calmly the great hero stood before the assembled multi- 
tude. His imposing presence required not the trappings 
of the bedecked and bejewelled grandees of the court. 
Majestic was his calm dignity as he addressed the peo- 
ple : — 

''Citizens! the French people in order to be free had 
kings to combat. To obtain a constitution founded on 
reason, it had the prejudices of eighteen centuries to over- 
come. Priestcraft, feudalism, despotism, have succes- 
sively, for two thousand years, governed Europe. From 
the peace you have just concluded dates the era of repre- 



NAPOLEON I. 447 

sentative governments. You have succeeded in organiz- 
ing a great nation, whose vast territory is circumscribed 
only because Nature herself has fixed its limits. You 

have done more. The two finest countries in Europe 

formerly so renowned for the arts, the sciences, and the 
illustrious men whose cradle they were — see with the 
greatest hopes genius and freedom issuing from the tomb 
of their ancestors. I have the honor to deliver to you 
the treaty signed at Campo Formio, and ratified by the 
emperor. Peace secures the liberty, the prosperity, and 
the glory of the Republic. As soon as the happiness of 
France is secured by the best organic laws, the whole of 
Europe will be free." 

A wild burst of enthusiasm filled the air as Napoleon 
ceased speaking. The people shouted, " Live Napoleon, 
the conqueror of Italy, the pacificator of Europe, the 
saviour of France ! " 

Napoleon now laid aside the dress of a soldier. He 
attended constantly the meetings of the Institute, and 
immediately assumed a pre-eminence amongst those dis- 
tinguished scholars as marked as he had alreadj^ attained 
as a general. 

Republican France was now at peace with all the 
world, England alone excepted. The Directory raised an 
army for the invasion of England, and gave Napoleon the 
command. Repul)licaus all over Europe, England in- 
cluded, adored Napoleon as the great champion of popu- 
lar rights. England trembled. It was necessary that 
the people should be taught to hate this man whom 
they now worshipped. The English press came to the 
rescue of the English government. The most malign and 
atrocious lies were published regarding Napoleon. He 
was represented as a demon in human form ; a monster of 



448 NAPOLEON I. 

profligacy and tyrannical ambition ; a robber, plunder- 
ing the nations for his own selfish aggrandizement. Re- 
garding these bitter and false libels Napoleon said : 
••'There is not one which will reach posterity. When I 
have been asked to cause answers to be written to them, 
I have uniformly replied, ' My victories and my works 
of public improvement are the only response which it 
becomes me to make.' When there shall not be a trace 
of these libels to be found, the great monuments of 
utility which I have reared, and the code of laws that I 
have formed, will descend to the most remote ages, and 
future historians will avenge the wrongs done me by my 
contemporaries." Napoleon deeming an attack upon 
England too hazardous, the project was abandoned. 

Then followed Napoleon's expedition into Egypt. Vol- 
umes could be written upon each one of Napoleon's mar- 
vellous campaigns, but we can merely give a slight out- 
line. The famous battle of the Pyramids made Napo- 
leon the undisputed conqueror of Egypt. "Soldiers!" 
he exclaimed, as he rode along the ranks, "from those 
summits forty centuries contemplate your actions." 

The name of Napoleon became suddenly as renowned 
in Asia and Africa as it had previously become in 
Europe. But twenty-one days had elapsed since he 
landed at Alexandria, and now he was sovereign of 
Egypt. The Egyptians welcomed him as a friend and 
liberator. He disclaimed all sovereignty over Egypt, and 
organized a government to be administered by the peo- 
ple themselves. In the mean time Lord Nelson learned 
that the French had landed in Egypt. He immediately 
proceeded thither. The famous battle of the Nile fol- 
lowed, in which the English were victorious. The French 
fleet had been destroyed, and Napoleon was cut off from 



NAPOLEON I. 449 

Europe. All monarchical Europe rejoiced; all republi- 
can Europe mourned. Napoleon now undertook the 
Syrian expedition. With ten thousand men he com- 
menced his march over the desert. We cannot describe 
their weary march through the burning sands, their suffer- 
ings from want, and the dreadful plague which soon brolve 
out in the army. We can only note the siege of Acre. 
The subjugation of this fortress would have made Napo- 
leon master of Syria. Sir Sidney Smith conducted the 
defence with the combined English and Turkish troops. 
It was here that the marvellous affection of Napoleon's 
soldiers for their general was tested. Sir Sidney Smith 
circulated a proclamation, offering to convey every French 
soldier safely to France who would desert Napoleon. It 
is not known that a single man was false to Napo- 
leon, whom all adored as a being seemingly more than 
mortal. 

The siege had continued for sixt}^ days. Napoleon had 
lost three thousand men by the sword and the plague. 
At this time fresh Turkish troops arrived to join his ene- 
mies ; and deeming the enterprise hopeless, Napoleon 
abandoned the siege. Napoleon was as great in defeat 
as in success. Speaking of his power to endure trials, he 
said: "Nature seems to have calculated that I should 
endure great reverses. She has given me a mind of 
marble. Thunder cannot ruffle it. The shaft merely 
glides along." 

At midnight, on the 25th of July, 1799, Napoleon, with 
six thousand men, arrived within sight of the camp of the 
Turks, upon the shores of the Bay of Aboukir. Napo- 
leon knew that the Turks were awaiting the arrival of the 
Mameluke cavalry from Egypt and of re-enforcements 
from Acre and other parts of Syria. Defeat to Napoleon 



450 NAPOLEON I. 

now would have been utter ruin. But the terrific conflict 
which followed was not a defeat, but a victory so com- 
plete that the whole Turkish army was destroyed. Sir 
Sidney Smith fled in terror to liis ships. Not a foe re- 
mained. In the enthusiasm of the moment, Kleber, who 
liad just arrived witli a division of two thousand men, for 
whom Napoleon had not waited, threw his arms around 
the neck of his adored chieftain, exclaiming, " Let me 
embrace 3^ou, ni}' general ; you are great as the uni- 
verse ! " 

Napoleon now learned that France was in a terrible 
state of confusion. The imbecile government was de- 
spised. Plots, conspiracies, and assassinations filled the 
land. Napoleon determined to return to France. As he 
had no fleet, he could not take his arm}'. The matter was 
therefore concealed from them. With a small retinue. 
Napoleon embarked, and sailed to France. Then fol- 
lowed the overthrow of the Director3\ France had tried 
republicanism, and the experiment had failed. The peo- 
ple were too ignorant to govern themselves. The next 
morning after the overthrow of the Directory, the three 
consuls. Napoleon, Si^yes, and Ducos, met in the palace 
of the Luxembourg. 

There was but one arm-chair in the room. Napoleon 
had seated himself in it. Si^yes exclaimed, " Gentle- 
men, who shall take the chair?" 

"Bonaparte, sureh'," said Ducos; "he already has 
it. He is the only man who can save us." 

"Very well, gentlemen," said Napoleon, promptly; 
" let us proceed to business." 

And important business he soon despatched. The 
revolutionary tribunals had closed the churches and pro- 
hibited the observance of the Sabbath. Napoleon re- 



NAPOLEON L 451 

called the banished priests, opened the churches, and 
restored religious worship. The treasury was bankrupt. 
Napoleon replenished it. The army was starving and 
ragged. Napoleon addressed them with his thrillino- 
words of sympathy, and clothed and fed them. The 
navy was dilapidated. In every port in France, at the 
magic word of this magnetic man, the sound of the ship- 
hannner was heard, and a fleet was prepared to send 
to Egypt to convey to France his soldiers left there. The 
Constitution was framed and adopted, and Napoleon was 
elected First Consul of France. Civil war was now at an 
end. Napoleon wrote two letters, one to the king of 
England, and the other to the emperor of Germany, en- 
deavoring to arrange a general peace. Austria was in- 
clined to listen to this appeal, but England demanded 
war. She would have no peace while France continued 
a republic. So Napoleon was forced to prepare for war. 

" Moreau was sent with a magnificent army into 
Swabia, to drive back the Austrians towards their capi- 
tal ; Massena was appointed over the army of Italy, while 
Napoleon himself swept down from the heights of San 
Bernard, upon the plains of Lombardy. 

"At the fierce-fought battle of Marengo he reconquered 
Itah^ while Moreau chased the vanquished Austrians 
over the Danube. Victory everywhere perched on the 
French standards, and Austria was ready to agree to an 
armistice, in order to recover from the disasters she had 
suffered. The slain at Montibello, around Genoa, on the 
plains of Marengo, in the Black Forest, and along the 
Danube are to be charged over to the British government, 
which refused peace in order to fight for the philanthropic 
purpose of giving security to governments. 

" Austria, though crippled, let the armistice wear away, 



452 NAPOLEON I. 

refusing to make a treaty because she was bound for 
seven months longer to England. Bonaparte, in the 
mean time, was preparing to recommence hostilities. 
Finding himself unable to conclude a peace, he opened 
the campaign of Iloheulinden, and sent Macdonald across 
the Splugen. Moreau's victorious march through Austria, 
and the success of the operations in Italy, soon brought 
Austria to terms, and the celebrated peace of Luneville, 
of 1801, was signed. The energy and ability, and above 
all, the success of the First Consul had now forced the 
continental powers to regard him with respect, and in 
some cases with sympathy, while England, by her imperi- 
ous demands, had embroiled herself with all the northern 
powers of Europe." 

At length a general peace was concluded at Amiens, 
and the world was at rest. Napoleon was now the idol 
of France. Although his title was onl}^ that of First Con- 
sul, and France was nominally a republic, yet he was in 
reality the most powerful monarch in P^urope. He ruled 
in the hearts of forty millions of people. In 1803 the 
peace of Amiens was broken, and all impartial historians 
admit, and even English writers cannot deny the respon- 
sibility of this rupture rests with England. In that treaty 
it was expressly stipulated that England should evacuate 
Egypt and Malta, while France was to evacuate Naples, 
Tarento, and the Roman States. Napoleon had fulfilled 
his part of the agreement within two months after the 
peace. But the English were still in Alexandria and 
Malta. Napoleon was right, and England was entirely 
wrong. If a violation of a solemn treaty is a just cause 
for war, Napoleon was free from blame. England now 
drew Russia into this new alliance, then Austria and Swe- 
den. Prussia refused to join the alliance, and sided with 



NAPOLEOX I. 453 

France. The blooc^y conflict began. For the slain left 
on the plains of Italy, for the tens of tiiousands strewn 
on the battle-field of Austerlitz, who is chargeable? 
Neither Napoleon nor France. Napier, in his " Peninsular 
War," sa3's : 

''Up to the peace of Tilsit, the wars of France were 
essentially defensive; for the blood}' contest that wasted 
the continent for so many years was not a struggle for 
pre-eminence between ambitious powers, nor for the politi- 
cal ascendency of one or other nation, hut a deadly conjiid 
to determine whether aristocracy or democracy should pre- 
dominate^ — whether equality or privilege should henceforth 
he the principle of European governments.^^ 

" But how much does this ' up to the peace of Tilsit' 
embrace ? First, all the first wars of the French Repub- 
lic, — the campaigns of 1792, '93, '94, '95, and the carnage 
and woe that made up their history ; second, eleven out 
of the eighteen 3'ears of Bonaparte's career, — the cam- 
paigns of 1796, in Italy and German}', the battles of 
Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, Lodi, Areola, Castiglione, 
and Rivoli, the campaigns of 1797, and the bloody battle- 
fields that marked their progress. It embraces the wars 
in Italy and Switzerland while Bonaparte was in Egypt ; 
the campaign of Marengo, and its carnage ; the havoc 
around and in Genoa ; the slain thousands that strewed 
the Black Forest and the banks of the Danube, where 
Moreau struggled so heroically ; the campaign of Hohen- 
linden, and its losses. And yet this is but a fraction to 
what remains. This period takes in also the campaign of 
Austerlitz and its bloody battle, and the havoc the hand 
of war was making in Italy ; the campaign of Jena, and 
the fierce conflicts that accompanied it ; the campaign of 
Eylau and the battles of Pultusk, Golymin, Heilsberg, 



454 NAPOLEON 1. 

crowned by the dreadful slaughter of Eylau ; the cam- 
paigns of Friendland and Tilsit, and the multitudes they 
left on the plains of Europe. All these terrible campaigns, 
with their immense slaughter, does an English historian 
declare to be the result of a defensive war on the part of 
F'rance, not merely a defence of territory, hut of human 
rights against tyranny. Let republicans ponder this be- 
fore they adopt the sentiments of prejudiced historians, 
and condemn as a monster the man who was toiling over 
battle-fields to save his country from banded oppressors." 

The 2d of December, 1804, dawned clear and cold. 
It was Sunda}', and upon this day Napoleon was to be 
crowned emperor at the church of N6tre Dame. All 
Paris assembled to witness this imposing ceremony. The 
church was draped in costly velvet of richest hues. At 
one end a gorgeous throne was erected. The Emperor left 
the Tuilieries in a splendid carriage, whose sides were of 
glass, thus allowing his magnificent robes to be seen. 
He wore a golden laurel wreath upon his head. 

The acclamations of the immense crowds thronging the 
streets filled the air. As Napoleon entered the church, 
five hundred musicians intoned a solemn chant. The 
Pope anointed the Emperor and blessed the sword and 
the sceptre. Then Napoleon lifted the crown and placed 
it upon his own head. Napoleon then took up the crown 
intended for the Empress, and approaching Josephine as 
she knelt before him, he placed it tenderly upon her brow. 
Their eyes met for one moment in a long and loving gaze 
of mutual affection, and tears filled the eyes of the beauti- 
ful Josephine as she glanced with undisguised adoration 
upon the husband she so reverenced and worshipped. 
And the lofty arches of Notre Dame resounded with 
shouts of " >7fe VEmpereur !'' 



NAPOLEON I. 455 

The Cisalpine Republic had witnessed the change of 
France from a republic to an empire with great satisfac- 
tion. A deputation from Italy was now sent to Napoleon, 
begging him to assume the crown of Charlemagne. On 
the 20th of INIay, the coronation took place in the Cathedral 
of Milan. The ceremony was conducted with a magnifi- 
cence not exceeded at Notre Dame. The iron crown of 
Charlemagne had reposed for a thousand years in the 
church of Monza. The Empress first appeared gorgeously 
dressed and glittering with jewels. Then Napoleon en- 
tered, arrayed in imperial robes, with the diadem upon his 
brow and the sceptre and crown of Charlemagne in his 
hands. He placed the crown upon his own head, saying, 
solemnly, "God has given it to me; woe to him who 
touches it ! " 

Meanwhile, hostilities had commenced in the midst of 
Germany. Austria and Russia had united with England. 
The Austrians. had passed the Inu ; Munich was invaded ; 
war was inevitable. 

Then followed the campaign of Ulm. Napoleon writes 
to Josephine, Dec. 5, 1805 : — 

"I have concluded a truce. The Russians have im- 
plored it. The victory of Austerlitz is the most illustri- 
ous of all which I have gained. We have taken forty-five 
flags, 150 pieces of cannon, and twenty generals. More 
than 20,000 are slain. It is an awful spectacle. I have 
beaten the Russian and Austrian armies commanded by 
the two emperors." 

In 1806 England, Russia, and Prussia formed a new 
alliance against the French. Then followed the bloody 
battles of Jena and Auerstadt. On the 28th of October 
Napoleon made a triumphal entry into Berlin, and estab- 
lished himself in the king's palace. While there he visited 



456 NAPOLEON I 

the tomb of Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. The sword 
of the Prussian was suspended over his grave. Napoleon 
took it down, saying, " I will send it to the governor of 
the Invalides." General Rapp ventured to reply, '' Were 
I in your place, I should not be willing to part with this 
sword. I should keep it for myself." 

Napoleon jestingly answered, " Have I not then a sword 
of my oivn, Mr. Giver of Advice?" The Prussian mon- 
archy was destroyed upon the fields of Jena and of Auer- 
stadt. But England and Russia were yet clamorous for 
war. Again Napoleon tried to make overture for peace, 
again he was repulsed. Then followed the terrible battle- 
field of Eylau. Amid winter's snow and ice and storms 
this famous battle was won. As Napoleon passed over 
the gor}' field after the awful carnage, he exclaimed with 
deep emotion, " To a father who loses his children vic- 
tory has no charms." 

A dragoon, dreadfully shattered and bleeding from the 
effects of a cannon ball, raised his head from the bloody 
snow, and faintly said, " Turn your eyes this way, please 
your Majesty. I believe that I have got my death wound. 
I shall soon be in the other world. But no matter for 
that ; vive VEmpereur ! " 

Napoleon immediately dismounted from his horse and 
took the hand of the wounded man, telling his aids to 
carry him to the ambulance. Large tears rolled down the 
cheeks of the dying dragoon, as he fixed his eyes upon 
that loved face, fervently exclaiming, " I only wish I had 
a thousand lives to lay down for your majesty." Amidst 
a heap of dead, a feeble voice was heard crying, ^'-Vive 
rEmjiereur !" Half-concealed beneath a tattered flag lay 
a young oflScer. As Napoleon approached, he raised him- 
self upon his elbow, though pierced with numerous 



NAPOLEON I. 457 

wounds, and faintly cried: "God bless your majesty! 
farewell, farewell ! Oh, my poor mother ! To dear 
France my last sigh ! " and falling back, was dead. Upon 
this dreadful battle-field, though it was after midnight, lie 
wrote this fond note to Josephine : — 

My Love, — There was a great battle yesterday. Victory re- 
mains with me, hut I have lost many men. The loss of the enemy, 
still more considerable, does not console me. I write these two 
lines myself, though greatly fatigued, to tell you that I am well, 
and that I love you. Wholly thine, Napoleon. 

The peace of Tilsit was finally concluded, and Napo- 
leon returned to Paris. 

The French government at this time was composed of 
three houses, — the Senate, the Tribunate, and the Legisla- 
ture. Napoleon blended the Tribunate and the Legisla- 
ture in one. He formed the Council of State, or Cabinet, 
with the greatest care, choosing the most able men in 
every department. The meetings of the Council were 
held in the palace of the Tuileries or at St. Cloud. The 
most perfect freedom of discussion prevailed in the 
Council. 

In September, 1808, occurred the memorable meeting 
of the emperors at Erfurth. Kings, princes, and court- 
iers came from all parts of Europe to witness the extra- 
ordinary spectacle. Napoleon was the gracious host who 
received them as his guests. No more gorgeous retinue 
had ever followed a monarch of the blood royal than sur- 
rounded the Emperor Napoleon as he left Paris for the 
appointed place of meeting. Amid all the royal magnifi- 
cence which attended these imperial sovereigns, none 
appeared so majestic, so supremely commanding in their 
personal presence as Napoleon the Plebeian Monarch, 



458 NAPOLEON L 

who had raised himself by his own surprising and irre- 
sistible genius to the proudest place amidst the courts of 
Europe. 

All the other sovereigns trembled before his amazing 
power ; the imperialism of mind and genius compelled 
the homage of royal titles and royal blood. 

We do not uphold that Napoleon's career was free 
from error, and no greater blot tarnishes the brightness 
of his fame tlian his divorce of Josephine. From that 
moment Napoleon fell. From that moment Josephine 
mounted an eminence of self-sacrificing, unselfish devo- 
tion, of heart-martyrdom, never reached by woman be- 
.fore. Women have died for their husbands ; but this 
was worse than death. Women have slaved and toiled, 
and been down-trodden by brutal husbands ; but this was 
worse than that. Never before had woman stepped from 
so high an eminence of bliss into so deep an abyss of 
heart-desolating woe, and with self- renouncing, almost 
inconceivable, womanly devotion, allowed her royal place 
as wife to be taken by another, that thus a supposed 
political power might be gained by the idolized object of 
her affection ; who, even though his cruel demand thus 
shattered her hopes, her heart, and her life, she was still 
unselfish enough to glory in her self-renunciator}^ sac- 
rifice, for the still adored object of her love. No politi- 
cal excuse can cover this crime committed by Napoleon 
at the instigation of Fouclie and other ambitious adher- 
entis.^ and worst of all, at the instigation of his own rela- 
tions, whom historians acknowledge were the bitter ene- 
mies of his wife. No laxity of the times, in the sacred 
laws of marriage, which are the most solemn vows that 
human beings can take upon themselves, next to their 
vows to God, can excuse this blot upon Napoleon's fame. 



NAPOLEOX I. 459 

By the very eminence of his genius above all other men, by 
the very exaltation of his lofty position, should he have 
made himself the model as an upholder^ not a desecrator, 
of the most sacred human relation ever ordained b}- God. 

"What God hath joined together, let not man put 
asunder ! " was a weightier obligation than any supposed 
political advantage, more binding than any patriotism, 
more encumbent upon him than any duty of state or 
country. No political reasons can palliate in the least 
degree this crime ; they only weakly explain^ but do not 
in any manner excuse it. That Napoleon, with his mar- 
vellous self-sufficiency of will, and genius, and wise fore- 
thought, and keen-eyed intuition, could have been led 
into such a deplorable act, is past all comprehension. 
That it was the cruel and bitter mistake of his life, he 
himself has acknowledged. Napoleon said afterwards, 
" In separating myself from Josephine, and in marrying 
Maria Louisa, I placed my foot upon an abyss which was 
covered with flowers." 

It was an abyss deep and awful ; and from this dark 
and direful abyss issued forth the horrible reptiles of dis- 
appointment, sorrow, and remorse, which thrust their 
cruel fangs into the quivering heart of the lonely exile at 
St. Helena. Perchance, in the silent anguish of his 
agonized but heroic soul, a dumb wail broke forth, " Ah, 
Josephine ! my only love ! bright star of my destiny ! 
when I no longer gazed upward to thy heavenly light, but 
tempted by the demons of false counsel, followed an 
ignis fatuus o'er the treacherous quicksands of political 
ambition, then did I find myself ingulfed in sorrows, and 
my heart was shrouded in the black darkness of a rayless 
night of hopeless despair. Had I been true to thee, per- 
chance a just and righteous Providence might have been 



460 NAPOLEON I. 

more merciful to me. Thou wert my star of hope and 
love ! Thou wert ordained by heaven, m}^ star of des- 
tiny ! Bitterly do I remember thy prophetic words upon 
that memorable night, when the tie which bound us 
together was shattered by my blind ambition, ' Bona- 
parte, behold that bright star ; it is mine ! and remember, 
to mine, not to thine, has sovereignty been promised. 
Separate, then, our fates, and your star fades ! ' 

"Ah, Josephine, you were right! It is to you alone 
that I owe the only few moments of happiness I have 
known in the world ! " 

Yes, Josephine was right ; that hour marked the com- 
mencement of the downfall of Napoleon. His star, which 
once blazed forth in matchless splendor in the heavens, 
was soon to sink forever. The two greatest errors of 
Napoleon were the conquest of Spain and the invasion of 
Russia. The first was unjust, the second was unfortunate. 
We can but give one picture of the Russian campaign. 
Napoleon and his armv had marched in triumph more 
than two thousand miles from his capital. Victor}' had 
accompanied him. He had taken the metropolis of the 
most powerful nation on the continent, though that 
nation had been aided by England, Spain, Portugal, and 
Sweden. Moscow was in the possession of the French. 
Napoleon was established in the Kremlin. 

It was the 16th of September, 1812. At midnight the 
crv of " lire ! " resounded throusfh the streets. Moscow 
was in flames ! Mines were sprung, shells burst, cannons 
were discharged, wagons of powder exploded ; earth- 
quake succeeded earthquake ; volcano followed volcano 
of flame and smoke and burning projectiles, until the 
whole vast city was wrapped in one wild ocean of flame. 
Napoleon said of this awful sight: " It was a spectacle 



NAPOLEOX L 461 

of a sea and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of flame ; 
mountains of red rolling flames, like immense waves of 
the sea, alternately bursting forth and elevating them- 
selves to skies of fire, and then sinking into the ocean of 
flame below. Oh ! it was the most grand, the most sub- 
lime, the most terrific sight the world ever beheld." 

Nothing was left of Moscow save the remembrance of 
its former grandeur. Then followed the terrible retreat 
of the French army, through the cold and snow and 
winter storms. During this unfortunate expedition the 
entire army of Napoleon had been destroyed. "During 
the Russian campaign France is believed to have lost 
about three hundred and fifty thousand soldiers : a hun- 
dred thousand were killed in the advance and retreat, a 
hundred and fifty thousand died from hunger, fatigue, and 
the severity of the climate, and about a hundred thou- 
sand remained prisoners in the hands of the Russians, 
not more than half of whom ever returned to France." 

Still, notwithstanding the enormous wars in which 
Napoleon had been engaged, he had expended in works 
of public improvement, for the embellishment of France, 
in the course of nine years, more than two hundred mil- 
lions of dollars. " These miracles," says a French writer, 
" were all effected by steadiness of purpose, talent armed 
with power, and finances wisely and economically applied. 
If a man of the age of the Medici, or of Louis XIV., 
were to revisit the earth, and at the sight of so many 
marvels, ask how many ages of peace and glorious reigns 
had been required to produce them, he would be an- 
swered, ' Twelve years of war ^ and a single man!' " 

But the war was not over. With an army formed of 
fresh recruits, again Napoleon was forced to meet his 
foes. Then followed the battle of Lutzen, which is re- 



462 NAPOLEON T. 

garded as oue of the Jiiost ])rilliaiit proofs of Napoleon's 
genius. But now many a Judas a[)peared in the midst of 
his supposed friends. General Jomini deserted the staff 
of Marshal Nev, and went over to the Emperor Alexan- 
der. Bernadotte, of Sweden, took up arms against the 
French ; and General Moreau went over to the camp of 
the Allies. 

" After the disaster of Leipsic, and the losses sustained 
by different divisions of the army in that campaign, and 
the mortality which thinned so dreadfully the French 
armies on the Rhine, France felt herself exhausted and 
weak. 

In this depressed state, the civilized world was prepar- 
ing its last united onset upon her. From the Baltic to 
the Bosphorus, from the Archangel to the Mediterranean, 
P^urope had banded itself against Napoleon. Denmark 
and Sweden had struck hands with Austria and Russia 
and Prussia and England ; while, to crown all, the princes 
of the Confederation of the Rhine put their signatures to 
the league, and 0)16 million and twenty-eight thousand men 
stood up in battle array on the plains of Europe to over- 
throw this mighty si)irit that had shaken so terribly their 
thrones. And all this resistless host were pointing their 
bayonets towards Paris. What man or nation could meet 
such an overwhelming foe? Never did Napoleon's genius 
shine. forth with greater splendor than in the almost super- 
human exertions he put forth in this last great struggle 
for his empire. The Allies entered the capital, and Napo- 
leon was compelled to abdicate, preferring exile, rather 
than involve France in more terrible bloodshed. He then 
penned this memorable abdication : — 

"The allied sovereigns having declared that the Em- 
peror Napoleon is the sole obstacle to the re-establish- 




NAPOLEON AT FONTAIN KBLEAU. 



NAPOLEON I. 463 

ment of a general peace in Europe, the Emperor Napoleon, 
faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, for him- 
self and his heirs, the throne of France and Italy ; and 
that there is no personal sacrifice, not even that of life 
itself, which he is not willing to make for the mterests of 
France." 

Then followed his mournful farewell to his soldiers. 

"As Napoleon arrived at the landmo- of the o-rand 
staircase, he stood for a moment and looked around upon 
the Guard drawn up in the court, and upon the innumerable 
multitude which thronged its surroundings. Every eye 
was fixed on him. It was a funereal scene, over which 
was suspended the solemnity of religious awe. Acclama- 
tions in that hour would have been a mockery. The 
silence of the grave reigned undisturbed. Tears rolled 
down the furrowed cheeks of the warriors, and their heads 
were bowed in overwhelming grief. Napoleon cast a ten- 
der and a grateful look over the battalions and the squad- 
rons who had ever proved so faithful to himself and to 
his cause. Before descending to the courtyard, he hesi- 
tated for a moment, as if his fortitude were forsaking 
him. But immediately rallying his strength, he approached 
the soldiers. The drums commenced beatino- the accus- 
tomed salute. With a gesture Napoleon arrested the 
martial tones." A breathless stillness prevailed. AVith 
a voice clear and firm, — every articulation of which was 
heard in the remotest ranks, — he said : — 

"Generals, officers, and soldiers of my Old Guard, I 
bid you farewell. For five and twenty years I have ever 
found you in the path of honor and of glory. In these 
last days, as in the days of our prosperity, you have never 
ceased to be models of fidelity and of courage. Europe 
has armed ao^ainst us. Still, with men such as vou, our 



464 NAPOLEON I. 

cause never could have been lost. We could have main- 
tained a civil war for years. But it would have rendered 
our country unhappy. I have therefore sacrificed our in- 
terests to those of France. I leave you ; but, my frieuds, 
he faithful to the new sovereign ivhom France has accepted. 
The happiness of France was my only thouglit ; it shall 
ever be the object of my most fervent prayers. Grieve 
not for my lot ; I shall be happy so long as I know tliat 
3^ou are so. If I have consented to outlive myself, it is 
with tlie hope of still promoting 3'our glor^'. I trust to 
wri^e the deeds w^e have achieved together. Adieu, my 
childi"en ! I would that I could press you all to my heart. 
Let me at least embrace your general and 3our eagle." 

"Every e\'e was now bathed in tears. At a signal 
from Napoleon, General Petit, who then commanded the 
Old Guard, advanced and stood between the ranks of the 
soldiers and their emperor. Napoleon, with tears dim- 
ming his eyes, encircled the general in his arms, while 
the veteran commander, entirely unmanned, sobbed aloud. 
All hearts were melted, and a stifled moan was heard 
through all the ranks. 

"Again the Emperor recovered liimself , and said, ' Bring 
me the eagle.' A grenadier advanced, bearing one of the 
eagles of the regiment. Napoleon imprinted a kiss upon 
its silver beak, then pressed the eagle to his heart, and 
said, in tremulous accents, ' Dear eagle, may this last em- 
brace vibrate forever in the hearts of all my faithful 
soldiers ! Farewell, again, my old companions, farewell ! ' " 

]>ut Elba could not long hold that daring, restless 
spirit. The next year he again unrolled his standard in 
the capital of France, and the army opened its arms to 
receive him. He at length staked all on the field of 
Waterloo. There the star of his destiny again rose over the 



KAPOLEON I. 465 

horizon, and struggled with its ancient strength to mount 
the heavens of fame. The battle-cloud rolled over it, 
and when it again was swept away, that star had gone 
down, sunk in blood and carnage, to rise no more forever. 
" Volumes have been written on this campaign and last 
battle ; but every impartial mind must come to the same 
conclusion, — that Napoleon's plans never promised more 
complete success than at this last effort. Wellington was 
entrapped, and with the same co-operation on both sides, 
he was lost beyond redemption. Had l>lucher stayed away 
as Grouchy did, or had Grouchy come up as did Bliicher, 
victory would once more have soared with the French 
eagles. It is in vain to talk of Grouchy 's having obeyed 
orders. It was plainly his duty, and his only duty, to 
detain Bliicher or to follow him." 

Even yet Napoleon could have placed himself at the 
head of fifty thousand men in a few hours. He was en- 
treated by his friends to grasp these powerful resources 
and again attack the foe. But treachery had already in- 
vaded the Chamber of Deputies. The wily Fouche — the 
same who had largely instigated the divorce of Josephine 
— had obtained the control, and joining with the Bourbons, 
persuaded the Chamber to demand the second abdication 
of the Emperor. 

" Two regiments of volunteers from the Faubourg St. 
Antoine, accompanied by a countless multitude, marched 
to the gates of the Ely see. A deputation waited upon 
the Emperor, stating that the traitorous Chamber of Depu- 
ties was about to sell France again to the Bourbons, and 
entreating him to take the reins of government into his 
own hands, as on the 18th Brumaire." The Emperor re- 
plied, "You recall to \n\ remembrance the 18th Brumaire, 
but you forget that the circumstances are not the same. 



4G6 NAPOLEON I. 

On the 18th Brumaire the nation was unanimous in desir- 
ing a change. A feeble effort onl}' was necessary to 
effect what they so much desired. Now it would require 
floods of French blood, and never shall a single drop be 
shed by me in defence of a cause purely personal. Put- 
ting the brute force of the mass of the people into action 
would doubtless save Paris and insure me the crown with- 
out incurring the horrors of civil war, but it would like- 
wise be risking thousands of P'rench lives. No ! I like the 
regrets of France better than her crowiiJ^ 

And so Napoleon, sacrificing himself to save the lives 
of the French people, dictated his second act of abdica- 
tion, and resigned himself with amazing calmness to this 
overwhelming disaster. But when he threw himself upon 
the generosity of England, she treacherously entrapped 
him on the Bellerophon^ and afterwards conveyed him as 
a captive to the desolate island of St. Helena, where she 
set spies over him to torture and insult him, and gloated 
with demoniacal cruelty over the reports they gave of his 
sufferings. 

But England, with all her cunning and her base treach- 
ery, could not imprison the matchless mind and soul of 
the great Napoleon. Though his body was chained to a 
drear}^ rock-prison, his genius was still the royal em})eror 
of the world. His wondrous sayings at St. Helena have 
become the text-books for the students of all climes. 

An English writer, who holds the position of a professor 
in the University at Cambridge, in a work lately pub- 
lished, thus gives to Napoleon his place in history : 
"There are times — and these are the most usual — 
when the most wonderful abilities would not have availed 
to raise any man from such a station as that in which 
Napoleon was born to the head of affairs. But the last 



NAPOLEON I. 467 

years of the eighteenth century formed an exceptional i)criod, 
in which such an ascent was not only possible in France, 
but was quite possible without very extraordinary abilities. 
That particular part of Napoleon's career to which the 
Alexanders and Hannibals can show nothing parallel, is 
in fact, just the part which, in that exceptional time, 
was within the reach of an ordinary man. Thus the 
miracle of Bonaparte's rise to power lies not so much in 
his personality as in the time." 

What a pity that this English professor could not have 
happened to have lived when ordinary men mio-ht have 
become so great ! 

One great secret of Napoleon's success was the union 
of two striking qualities which are not often found to- 
gether. His imagination was as ardent, and his mind as 
impetuous, as the most rash warrior; at the same time 
his judgment was as cool and correct as the ablest tacti- 
cian. '' His mind moved with the rapidity of lightning, 
and yet with the precision and steadiness of naked reason." 
This power of thinking quick and thinking right is one of 
the rarest and yet most important qualities to insure suc- 
cess. As a military leader he has no superior in ancient 
or modern times. Instead of following what was then 
considered the scientific mode of warfare, he fell back 
upon his own genius, and originated tactics which filled 
his foes with horrified surprise. His power of combina- 
tion was unequalled ; his mind seemed vast enough for 
the management of the globe. And yet so perfect was 
the system and arrangement of his plans and thoughts 
that the slightest detail was never overlooked. His 
bravery amounted to rashness where his own life was 
concerned. He feared neither shot nor shell, and care- 
lessly exposed himself whenever he thought his presence 



468 NAPOLEOX T. 

was needed, replying to his soldiers, who often besought 
him not to risk his life so recklessly, " Courage ! the ]>ul- 
let that is to kill me is not yet cast." 

As a thinker and statesman, Napoleon was as remarka- 
ble as he was as a politician and general. His genius 
was universal. Had he not been a Napoleon, he might 
have been a Shakespeare or a Bacon. He condensed a 
volume into a sentence ; his words were as keen as the 
blade of a Damascus sword, and as freighted with ominous 
meaning as the tides of the ocean. He knew men ; he 
knew books ; he knew nature. In twenty-five lessons 
Napoleon became so famiUar with the Iilnglish language 
that he could read any English book without difficulty. 

Another remarkable trait in Napoleon was his self- 
sufficiency. That self-confidence, which in smaller men 
would have been mad folly, was in him the most far-see- 
ing wisdom. He needed no opinions of other men to 
govern his actions. He was sufficient unto himself. He 
took counsel onlv of his own o-enius and reason and mar- 
velloiis intuitions. 

His self-reliance was his power in the midst of danger 
and difficulties. He believed God had given Inm a great 
part to pla}' in the world's drama, and he meant to play 
it well. His plans were almost the inspirations of 
prophetic foreknowledge. 

Napoleon was also the greatest of statesmen. His con- 
versations at St. Helena display his wonderful knowledge 
of men and governments and laws and administrative 
legislation. Nowhere else can be found such profound 
thoughts upon politics, war, sciences, arts, or religion. 
He has been accused of infidelity. But few declarations 
of the Divinity of Christ, ever uttered by mortal lips, have 
equalled in far-reaching apprehension, and also acknowl- 



I 



NAPOLEON I. 4(39 

edgment of tlic divine incomprehensibility of the mystery 
of the Godhead, as the sayings of Napoleon. Conversino- 
with General Bertrand at 8t. Helena, Napoleon said : 

" I know men, and I tell you that Jesns Christ is not a 
man. Superficial minds see a resemblance between Christ 
and the founders of empires and the gods of other relig- 
ions. That resemblance does not exist. There is be- 
tween Christianity and all other religions whatsoever the 
distance of infinity. Paganism was never accepted as 
truth b}' the wise men of Greece, neither by Socrates, 
Pythagoras, Plato, Anaxagoras, nor Pericles. But on the 
other side, the loftiest intellects since the advent of 
Christianity have had faith, a living faith, a practical faith, 
in the mysteries and doctrines of the Gospel. Paganism 
is the work of man. What do these gods so boastful 
know more than other mortals? these legislators, Greek 
or Roman? this Numa? this Lycurgus? these priests of 
India or of Memphis ? this Confucius ? this Mohammed ? 
Absolutely nothing. They have made a perfect chaos of 
morals. There is not one among them all who has said 
anything new in reference to our future destiny, to the 
soul, to the essence of God, to the creation. As for me, 
I recognize the gods and these great men as beings like 
m3^self . They have performed a lofty part in their times, 
as I have done. Nothing announces them divine. On 
the contrary, there are numerous resemblances between 
them and myself, — foibles and errors which ally them to 
me and to humanit3\ 

" It is not so with Christ. Everything in him aston- 
ishes me. His spirit overawes me, and his will confounds 
me. Between him and whoever else in the world there 
is no possible term of comparison ; his birth, and the his- 
tory of his life ; the profundity of his doctrine, which 



470 NAPOLEON I. 

grapples the mightiest difficulties, and which is of those 
difficulties the most admirable solution ; his Gospel, his 
apparition, his empire, his march across the ages and the 
realms, — everything is to me a prodigy, an insoluble 
mystery, which plunges me into a reverie from which 1 
cannot escape, a mystery which is there before my eyes, 
a mystery which I can neither deny nor explain. Here I 
see nothing human. 

"Jesus borrowed nothing from our sciences. His relig- 
ion is, a revelation from an intelligence which certainly 
is not that of man. One can absolutely find nowhere, 
but in him alone, the imitation or the example of his life. 
He is not a philosopher, since he advances by miracles, 
and from the first his disciples worshipped him. He per- 
suades them far more by an appeal to the heart, than by 
any display of method and of logic. Neither did he im- 
pose upon them any preliminary studies or any knowledge 
of letters. All his religion consists in believing. In 
fact, the sciences and philosophy avail nothing for salva- 
tion. He has nothing to do but with the soul, and to 
that alone he brings his Gospel. The soul is sufficient for 
him, as he is sufficient for the soul. I search in vain in 
history to find a parallel to Jesus Christ, or anything 
which can approach the Gospel. Neither histor^^, nor 
humanity, nor the ages, nor nature, can offer me an3^thing 
with which I am able to compare it or explain it. The 
more I consider the Gospel, the more I am assured that 
there is nothing there which is not beyond the march of 
events, and above the human mind. 

"You speak of Caesar, of Alexander, of their con- 
quests, and of the enthusiasm they enkindled in the 
hearts of their soldiers ; but can you conceive of a dead 
man making conquests with an army faithful and entirely 



NAPOLEOX L 171 

devoted to his memory ? My armies have forgotten me, 
even while living, as the Carthaginian army forgot Hanni- 
bal. Such is our power ! A single battle lost crushes us, 
and adversity scatters our friends. 

'' Can you conceive of Cajsar, the eternal emperor of 
the Roman Senate, from the depths of his mausoleum 
governing the empire, watching over the destinies of 
Rome? Such is the history of the invasion and conquest 
of the world by Christianity. Such is the power of the 
God of the Christians, and such is tlie perpetual miracle 
of the progress of the faith and of the government of his 
Church. Nations pass away, thrones crumble, l)ut the 
Church remains. In every other existence but that of 
Christ, how many imperfections ! From the first day to 
the last he is the same, always the same, majestic and 
simple, infinitely firm and infinitely gentle. Christ proved 
that he was the Son of the Eternal by liis disregard of 
time. All his doctrines signify one and the same thing, — 
Eteiiiity. 

" The Gospel is not a book ; it is a living being, with an 
action, a power which invades everything that opposes its 
extension. Behold it upon this table, this Book surpass- 
ing all others " (here he solemnly' placed his hand upon 
it) ; ''I never omit to read it, and every day with the 
same pleasure. Nowhere is to be found such a series of 
beautiful ideas, admirable moral maxims, which defile like 
the battalions of a celestial army, and which produce in 
our soul the same emotion which one experiences in con- 
templating the infinite expanse of the skies, resplendent 
in a summer's night with all the brilliance of the stars. 
Not only is our mind absorbed ; it is controlled, and the 
soul can never go astray with this Book for its guide. 
Once master of our spirit, the faithful Gospel loves 



472 NAPOLEON L 

US. God eveu is our P'riend, our Father, and truly our 

God. 

^' What a proof of the divinity of Christ! With an 
empire so absohite, he has but one single end, — the spirit- 
ual amelioration of individuals, the purity of conscience, 
the union to that which is true, the holiness of the soul. 
So that Christ's greatest miracle undoubtedly is the reign 
of charity. 

"Behold the destiny near at hand of him who has 
been called the great Napoleon ! What an abyss between 
my deep misery and the eternal reign of Christ, which is 
proclaimed, loved, adored, and which is extending over 
all the earth. Is this to die? Is it not rather to live? 
The death of Christ ! It is the death of God." Turning 
to General Bertrand, " If you do not perceive that Jesus 
Christ is God, very well ; then I did wrong to make you 
a general." At length came the last, though to Napoleon 
most welcome, summons. A few days before his death, 
he awoke one morning, saying, " I have just seen my 
good Josephine, but she would not embrace me. She 
disappeared at the moment when I was about to take her 
in my arms. She was seated there. It seemed to me 
that I had seen her yesterday evening. She is not 
changed. She is still the same, full of devotion to me. 
She told me that we were about to see each other again, 
never more to part." 

The disease progressed rapidly, and the dying hour 
drew near. It was the month of May, 1821. A violent 
storm raged with wild fury on that rocky prison-isle, as 
the spirit of the great Napoleon was freeing itself from its 
earthly fetters. His few faithful friends who shared his 
exile, stood weeping aroUnd his couch. In the solemn 
silence of that sacred hour his loved voice was once more 



NAPOLEON I. 473 

faintly heard: ''France/ Army! Head of the Army ! 
Josex)hine! " and the heart of Napoleon 1. ceased to beat. 
''Isle of Elba! Napoleon!'' had been the last words of the 
loving and forgiving Josephine. "France! the Army! 
Josephine ! " vrere the last images which lingered in the 
heart, and the last words which trembled on the lips of 
the dying emperor. 

" When the prejudice, and falshood, and hatred of his 
enemies shall disappear, and the world can gaze impar- 
tially on this plebeian soldier, rising to the throne of an 
empire, measuring his single intellect with the proudest 
kings of Europe, and ooming off victorious from the en- 
counter, rising above the prejudices and follies of his age, 
' making kings of plebeians, and plebfeians of kings,' grasp- 
ing, as by intuition, all military and poHtical science, 
expending with equal faciUty his vast energies on war or 
peace, turning with the same profound thought from 
fierce battles to commerce, and trade, and finances ; when 
the world can calmly thus contemplate him, his amazing 
genius will receive that homage which envy and igno- 
rance and hatred now withhold. 

" And when the intelligent philanthropist shall under- 
stand the political and civil history of Europe, and see 
how Napoleon broke up its systems of oppression and 
feudalism, proclaiming human rights in the ears of the 
world, till the continent shook with the rising murmurs 
of oppressed man ; study well the changes he introduced, 
without which human progress must have ceased ; see the 
great public works he established, the institutions he 
founded, the laws he proclaimed, and the civil liberty he 
restored ; and then, remembering that the bloody wars 
that offset all these were waged by him in self-defence, 
and were equal rights struggling against exclusive des- 



474 NAPOLEON I. 

potism, he will regret that he has adopted the slanders of 
his foemen and the falsehoods of monarchists." 

Alexander's conquests were only for selfish glory ; he 
cared not for his people, and little for his soldiers. Ci^e- 
sar's triumphs were for his own personal honor and 
power. The wars of Frederick the Great were nearly 
all unjust and aggressive, and he openly asserted his self- 
ish ambition. But Napoleon, equalling them all in the 
brillianc}' of his conquests, stands so far above them, as 
the i"dol of his people and his soldiers, as a man of incor- 
ruptible character, in the midst of temptations as great as 
any which have beset mortal men, as an intellectual ge- 
nius, with a mind so phenomenal as to make him almost 
a miracle in far-seeing intuitions and marvellous accom- 
plishment, — that he must be acknowledged, not only as 
the most famous of all the rulers of the world, but as 
the greatest uninspired man that ever lived. The history 
of most men terminates with the grave. But Napoleon's 
stor}' ended not with his lonely death upon the dreary 
Isle of St. Helena. Each year his memory was grow- 
ing brighter. Each 3'ear the French people realized more 
and more the irreparable loss they had sustained. The 
heart-melting story of his hardships at St. Helena was 
told over and over again in his beloved France, till at 
last the nation rose as one man to do his memory honor. 
Just twentj-five years from the time when Napoleon was 
landed a captive upon the Island of St. Helena, his 
sacred remains were brought from their humble resting- 
place upon that rock}^ isle, and placed in the magnificent 
mausoleum prepared for them in the Church of the Inva- 
lides. On the anniversary of the great victory of Auster- 
litz, the two funeral frigates entered the harbor of Cher- 
bourg. Three ships of war, the AusterlitZj the Friedland^ 




THE ROCK AT ST. HELENA. 



NAPOLEON I. Alb 

and the Tilsit, immediately encircled the ship which bore 
the sacred remains. All the forts, batteries, and war- 
ships fired a salute. All France flocked to the cities and 
villages through which the funeral cortege was to pass. 

At four o'clock, on the afternoon of the 14th of Decem- 
ber, 1840, the flotilla arrived at Courbevoie, a small vil- 
lage four miles from Paris. Here the remains were to l)e 
transferred from the steamer to the shore. As the 
funeral barge sailed up the Seine, a colossal statue of 
Josephine, which had been erected on the shore, offered 
an appropriate and fitting welcome. Her fair form and 
face seemed to greet the return of her idolized liusband, 
Maria Louisa, the daughter of the Caesars, was then living 
ingloriously at Parma. No one thought of her. But at 
last Josephine and Napoleon were united together in 
sacred memories on earth, as their spirits had already 
been reunited in heaven. 

"A Grecian temple one hundred feet higli was con- 
structied at the termination of the wharf, under wliich the 
body was to lie in state until transferred to tlie funeral 
car. Here Sergeant Hubert, who for nineteen years had 
kept watch at the solitary grave of Napoleon at St. 
Helena, landed. All the generals gathered around him, 
and he was welcomed by the people with deep emotion. 
The imperial funeral car was composed of five distinct 
parts, the basement, the pedestal, the Caryatides, the 
shield, and the cenotaph. The basement rested on four 
massive gilt wheels. It was profusely adorned with rich 
ornaments which were covered with frosted gold. Upon 
this basement stood groups of cherubs, seven feet high, 
supporting a pedestal eighteen feet long, covered with 
burnished gold. This pedestal was hung with purple vel- 
vet embroidered with oold. Upon it stood fourteen 



476 NAPOLEON I. 

Car3^atides, antique figures larger than life, and entirely 
covered with gold, supporting with their heads and hands 
an immense shield of solid gold. This shield was of oval 
form, and eighteen feet in lengtli, and was richly deco- 
rated. Upon the top of this shield, nearly fifty feet 
from the ground, was placed the cenotaph, an exact copy 
of Napoleon's coffin. It was slightly veiled with purple 
crape embroidered with golden bees. On the cenotaph, 
upon a velvet cushion, were placed the sceptre, the sword 
of justice, the imperial crown, in gold and embellished 
with precious stones. 

The Church of the Invalides had been magnificently 
adorned for the solemn ceremony. Thirty-six thousand 
spectators were seated upon immense platforms on the 
esplanade of the Invalides. Six thousand spectators 
thronged the seats of the spacious portico. In the interior 
of the church were assembled the clergy, the members 
of the Chambers of Deputies and of Peers, and all the 
members of the royal family and other distinguished 
personages from France rnd Europe. 

"As the coffin, preceded by the Prince de Joinville, 
was borne along the nave upon the shoulders of thirty-two 
of Napoleon's Old Guard, all rose and bowed in homage 
to the mighty dead." Louis Philippe, surrounded Iw the 
great officers of state, then stepped forward to receive the 
remains. 

" Sire," said the prince, " I present to you the body of 
the Emperor Napoleon." 

"I receive it," replied the king, "in the name of 
France." Then taking from the hand of Marshal Soult 
the sword of Napoleon, and presenting it to General 
Bertrand, he said, " General. T charge you to place this 
glorious sword of the Emperor upon liis coffin." 



NAPOLEON I. 477 

Beneath the lofty dome of the church, where the mas- 
sive tomb of Napoleon has since been erected, a magnifi- 
cent cenotaph in the form of a temple had been reared. 
Within this richly decorated catafalque the coffin of 
Napoleon was reverently and solemnly placed, thus ful- 
filling the last wish of the Emperor, expressed in these 
memorable words, "It is my wish that my ashes may 
repose on the banks of the Seine, in the midst of the 
French people whom I have loved so well." 

" He who united in himself alope the glory of Alexan- 
der, of Cffisar, of Charlemagne, and of Louis XIV., took 
his place in the Invalides, which, during his life, he had 
marked as the place of heroes." His devoted Generals 
Bertrand and Duroc now lie beside him. A few aged 
veterans of the Old Guard still watch over him. The 
sunlight, softened by the rich tints of the costly windows, 
falls lovingly upon his tomb, and his cherished memory 
lives in the hearts of his beloved people, grovs^ing more 
beautiful, more triumphantly venerated, and sacredly re- 
spected with each passing year. As his faithful veterans 
cast their crowns of flowers at the foot of his coffin, with 
trembling voices they lovingly though mournfully cried, 
" Vive V Eynpereur ! '' and this loved Emperor still lives in 
the hearts of his people, royally enshrined in a nation's 
undying love. 



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